Conference Session

Engineering Faculty: Interactions, Influences and Issues

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Michael Geoffrey Brown, University of Michigan; David B Knight, Virginia Tech Department of Engineering Education

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

Paper ID #8669Engineering Practice in the Academic Plan: External Influences, Faculty, andtheir Teaching RolesMr. Michael Geoffrey Brown, University of Michigan Michael is a second year doctoral student at the University of Michigan in Higher Education. His research interests focus on organizational communication and curriculum planning in post-secondary education.Dr. David B Knight, Virginia Tech Department of Engineering Education David Knight is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Engineering Education and affiliate faculty with the Higher Education Program at Virginia Tech. His research focuses on student learning

Conference Session

Trends in Engineering Education 1

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Lisa R. Lattuca, University of Michigan; David B Knight, Virginia Tech Department of Engineering Education; Michael Geoffrey Brown, University of Michigan-CSHPE

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

is a second year doctoral student at the University of Michigan in Higher Education. His research interests focus on organizational communication and curriculum planning in post-secondary education. Page 24.745.1 c American Society for Engineering Education, 2014 Influences on Engineering Instructors’ Emphasis on Interdisciplinarity in Undergraduate CoursesIntroductionSolving many of today’s technological and social challenges will require interdisciplinarythought and action1-5, and the growth of interdisciplinary engineering programs6 suggests that

Conference Session

Trends in Engineering Education 2

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Ibrahim Mohedas, University of Michigan; Shanna R. Daly, University of Michigan; Kathleen H. Sienko, University of Michigan

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

,synthesize, and use information when developing user requirements and engineeringspecifications. Understanding how students process information gathered during design mayallow instructors to counter the common mistakes students make when developing userrequirements and engineering specifications. Furthermore, research in this topic outside ofsoftware engineering is needed to determine whether the lessons learned in softwaredevelopment can apply to other disciplines, such as medical device design.Research DesignStudy PurposeThe following research questions motivated this study:  How do students’ plans compare with their execution of the front-end phases of design with respect to gathering, synthesizing, and using information?  Which

Conference Session

Student Learning, Problem Solving, and Critical Thinking 1

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Cynthia B. Paschal, Vanderbilt University

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

including those with jobs (75% of 65% of 300), those headed to graduateor professional school (30% of 300) and those with other plans (5% of 300) respond, the overallresponse rate is a seemingly respectable 84%. This demonstrates how badly non-response bias Page 24.131.6can lead to overestimation of placement and how consequently important very high rates ofsurvey completion are. 100% 95% Apparent Placement Rate 90% 85% 80

Conference Session

Trends in Engineering Education 2

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Gerard P. Lennon, Lehigh University; John B. Ochs, Lehigh University; Derick G. Brown P.E., Lehigh University

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

whereby a standinggraduate faculty committee and an appointed Enhancing Graduate Education (EGE) committeeworked together to create a sustainable process for periodic program review that included aframework for interpreting the five new university-level graduate student learning competencies:Knowledge, Application, Context, Communication, and Leadership. Also required wasdevelopment of a methodology for assessment and continuous improvement. This approachearned a very positive 2013 MSCHE evaluation: “university assessment practices of graduateStudent Learning Outcomes [were] particularly thoughtful ...[including] the plans, examples ofimplementation [and] the support structure.The recently developed framework for graduate SLO assessment allows

Conference Session

Engineering Student Experiences

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Janet Callahan Ph.D., Boise State University; Patricia Pyke, Boise State University; Susan Shadle Ph.D., Boise State University; R. Eric Landrum, Boise State University

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

 Individuals reach  Specific curricular across departments for and co-curricular University leaders specific projects projects (such as math join ownership of Building/  Constituents success) are STEM grants or 2 Connecting consulted undertaken initiatives STEM education research a university  Extensive focus integration and Policies and  Interdisciplinary development of STEM strategic plans STEM faculty learning student success deliberately

Conference Session

Pedagogy and Learning 1

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Waddah Akili, Iowa State University

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

paradigm, to ensure the vitality and currency of engineering education.Active Learning: Definitions and InterpretationsIt is difficult to come to grip with all the cited definitions, meanings, and interpretations of theterm “active learning”, since different contributors in the field have interpreted some termsdifferently. However, by gleaming at the literature, it is possible to arrive at general consensus ofwhat appears to be widely accepted definitions, and to shed light on how common terms areused.Active learning is generally defined as any instructional method that engages students in thelearning process. It is widely accepted that active learning requires students to take part in “pre-planned” learning-related activities, believed to spark

Conference Session

Engineering Faculty: Interactions, Influences and Issues

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Lisa Massi, University of Central Florida; Caitlyn R. McKinzie, University of Central Florida; Andre J Gesquiere, University of Central Florida; Sudipta Seal, University of Central Florida

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

are in the areas of increasedconfidence, personal/professional gains, “thinking and working like a scientist,” improvement invarious skills, clarification or confirmation of career and educational plans, enhanced career andgraduate school preparation, and collegial working relationships with faculty mentors.13,14 Whileincreased self-confidence is often cited in studies as a benefit reported by REU students, somegender differences are apparent on particular research skill sets. A study by Kardash15 showedthat male undergraduate research interns rated themselves significantly higher at the end of theREU on their ability to understand contemporary concepts in the field and somewhat higher(marginally significant) on the ability to form research

Conference Session

Student Learning, Problem Solving, & Critical Thinking 1

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Oluwatosin Alabi, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Alejandra J. Magana, Purdue University, West Lafayette; R. Edwin Garcia, Purdue University, West Lafayette

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

mathematicalbased problems 19. Polya’s four step model for problems solving with mathematical methodsincludes: (1) Representation of the problem, (2) Goal setting and planning, (3) Execution of theplan and (4) Evaluation of the solution. These steps were mapped to the assignment questions for Page 24.582.6each group as shown in table two. These mappings helped examine and highlight students’documented goal-oriented tasks towards developing their solutions to the problem assignment.Students’ responses were investigated using open-coding analysis to identify the patterns andthemes embedded in student responses 20. In particular, an inductive analysis

Conference Session

Student Learning, Problem Solving, & Critical Thinking 2

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Amy Elizabeth Bumbaco, University of Florida; Elliot P. Douglas, University of Florida

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

something in a fashionthat makes sense to people. I’m not sure how to explain what I mean. Um. (pause)…”Relating critical thinking to engineering course conceptsAlthough students struggled with articulating their thoughts, students did tend to relate ideas ofcritical thinking to engineering concepts they deal with in the classroom. These engineeringcourse concepts include: applying a framework/plan; weighing, selecting, and testing options(selection and design); using background knowledge; and using problem solving. For instanceone student explained the critical thinking process in a design course as: There’s a coach but no one tells you what to do or how to solve the problem. You’re expected to understand the problem, come up with

Conference Session

Methodological & Theoretical Contributions to Engineering Education 3

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Micah Lande, Arizona State University, Polytechnic campus; Shawn S. Jordan, Arizona State University, Polytechnic campus

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

MacGyver where the lead character would resolve each episode’spredicament by fashioning an escape plan out of found objects.2 Technology and sharing ofinformation via the Internet has greatly increased the ability for smaller communities with sharedinterests to coalesce and grow.The label “Maker” is a self-determined one assigned by affinity or involvement in a largerMaking community. Makers are do-it-yourself-minded individuals participating in informalcommunities (doing-it-with-others) that support and celebrate building and prototyping technicalproof-of-concept exploration and ad-hoc product development. A Maker is a modern-daytinkerer and hands-on doer and fashioner of stuff. The range of expertise could be large butnovices and experts alike

Conference Session

Trends in Engineering Education 1

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Khairiyah Mohd-Yusof, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia; Fatin Aliah Phang, Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia; Aziatul Niza Sadikin, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia; Syed Ahmad Helmi, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia; Mohd Johari Kamaruddin, Centre of Lipids Engineering & Applied Research (CLEAR), Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia.

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

theliterature as well as the questions that they have listed for the interview. The requirement isfor each group to have at least one face to face interview.Although the instruction is somewhat detailed, students normally feel overwhelmed by thefact that they have to find their own material to learn, teach one another, and search forengineers to interview. To provide support for planning the tasks and seeing the "big picture"of the whole assignment, students are taught to develop a Gantt Chart to manage their timeand expectations as a group. After conducting the assignment for several years, it is safe tosay that most students have never talked to engineers. Ensuring that they have foundengineers to interview is important for the success of the

Conference Session

Pedagogy and Learning 1

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Laura Hirshfield, Oregon State University; Jaynie L. Whinnery, Oregon State University; Debra M. Gilbuena, Oregon State University; Milo Koretsky, Oregon State University

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

Paper ID #9597A Study of Feedback Provided to Student Teams Engaged in Open-EndedProjectsDr. Laura Hirshfield, Oregon State University Laura Hirshfield is a Post-Doctoral Scholar at Oregon State University. She received her B.S. from the University of Michigan and her Ph.D. from Purdue University, both in chemical engineering. She is cur- rently doing research in the engineering education field, investigating technology-mediated active learning in a chemical engineering curriculum. After her post-doc, she plans to pursue a career in academia.Ms. Jaynie L. Whinnery, Oregon State University Jaynie Whinnery is a graduate

Conference Session

Student Beliefs, Motivation and Self Efficacy

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Courtney June Faber, Clemson University; Sarah Jane Grigg, Clemson University; Adam Kirn, Clemson University; Justine M. Chasmar; Lisa Benson, Clemson University

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

these higher-level executive functions such as planning, monitoring,evaluating, and revising guide problem solving processes and are vital in monitoring progresstowards goals.31 Students using limited metacognitive processes typically are unable to identifyand correct errors in problem solving attempts. Metacognitive tasks have been shown to becorrelated to successful problem solving attempts.28 There are two distinct components ofmetacognition: knowledge about cognition and regulation of cognition. Knowledge of cognitionrefers to the reflective aspect of metacognition and includes three components: declarativeknowledge (knowledge about self and about strategies), procedural knowledge (knowledge abouthow to use strategies), and conditional

Conference Session

Trends in Engineering Education 1

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Jeffrey Wigdahl, The University of New Mexico; Gregory L. Heileman, University of New Mexico; Ahmad Slim, University of New Mexico; Chaouki T. Abdallah, University of New Mexico

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

” in order to addressa measure we refer to as curricular efficiency. We then demonstrate how curricular efficiencycorrelates to student academic success—in particular, the effect it has on improved graduationrates, and the number of credit hours accumulated while pursing a degree. In this work, the degreeplan for a curriculum is represented as a directed acylic graph. Graph-theoretic metrics related toefficiency are then developed and applied to engineering degree plans obtained from a number ofpublic four-year institutions. In addition, student success data at the class level is adapted to createa weighted directed graph from which a cumulative curricular efficiency metric is obtained. Oneuse for this metric is to provide a tool for

Conference Session

Pedagogy and Learning 1

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Glenn W. Ellis, Smith College; Halimat A. Ipesa-Balogun, Smith College; Yanning Yu, Northwestern University; Yezhezi Zhang, Smith College; Xi Jiang, Smith College

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

year to support the knowledge-building themes of thiscourse. However, all exams and supporting materials for the class (such as concept maps andexample problems) maintained the same topics and depth of mechanics content.Knowledge Forum WorkspaceKnowledge Forum is an online asynchronous environment where users can contribute theories,working models, plans, evidence, data and resources by posting notes to views that are accessibleto all community members. Both notes and views are multimedia spaces, supporting text,graphics, and videos. Supportive features of Knowledge Forum allow users to build-on, co-author, and annotate notes of community members and to create reference links with citations toother notes. The build-on notes generate arrows

Conference Session

Student Learning, Problem Solving, & Critical Thinking 1

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Sean Moseley, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology; Rachel McCord, Virginia Tech

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

solve the problem,without knowledge of the correct final solution. The instructor used a think aloud method as theywrote, describing out loud their thought processes on how they analyzed the problem forimportant features, formulated and then executed a plan of action, and checked for errors inanalysis or calculations. Minor background noise reduction steps were taken during post-processing of some of the screencasts.Two different methods of providing students with the expert problem solving processes throughscreencasting were used in this study. One treatment used the “as recorded” or “honest” Page 24.671.5screencast. This treatment presented

Conference Session

Engineering Student Experiences

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Scott Blum, University of Colorado, Colorado Springs

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

Indiana University have established five benchmarks that are constructs madeout of forty-two separate questions from the survey.21 These benchmarks have been validatedover the years by multiple researchers in limited contexts,5, 6, 15, 18, 19, 22, 23, 30, 33 which wereloosely aligned with the USAFA undergraduate model. The constructs used were intended topredict the impact of various measures of student engagement on the desired outcomes of theinstitution.21 In the case of the Air Force Academy, the outcomes selected for measurement werebased on the published strategic plan,11 which established priorities for cadets based on theimperative “to educate, train, and inspire men and women to become officers of charactermotivated to lead the United

Conference Session

Methodological & Theoretical Contributions to Engineering Education 3

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Alice L Pawley, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Canek Moises Luna Phillips, Purdue University, West Lafayette

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

reliability: How can the The data needs to be collected and Procedures for generating and research process be made as recorded in a dependable way. representing knowledge need to be independent as possible from established and documented. random influences? Page 24.633.8    One of this paper’s authors participated in a Q3 workshop in 2013 organized around this typologyto discuss its merits and weaknesses, and attempt to put it into practice in our own researchcontexts. The workshop hinged on the concept of a “quality plan,” which

Conference Session

Methodological & Theoretical Contributions to Engineering Education 2

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Kenneth Stafford Sands II, Virginia Tech; Denise Rutledge Simmons, Virginia Tech

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

Paper ID #9827Utilizing Think-Aloud Protocols to Assess the Usability of a Test for EthicalSensitivity in ConstructionMr. Kenneth Stafford Sands II, Virginia Tech Kenneth S. Sands II is a doctoral candidate and graduate assistant in Environmental Design and Planning at Virginia Tech. His research focus is on professional ethics and its pedagogy.Dr. Denise Rutledge Simmons, Virginia Tech Denise R. Simmons, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the Myers-Lawson School of Construction & Civil and Environmental Engineering at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. She holds a B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. in civil

Conference Session

Methodological & Theoretical Contributions to Engineering Education 2

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

So Yoon Yoon, Texas A&M University; P.K. Imbrie, Texas A&M University; Joe J.J. Lin, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Kenneth Reid, Ohio Northern University

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

10 Motive 5 Approach Process Questionnaire (R- Strategy 5 5 Surface Learning SPQ-2F) by Biggs, Kember, 2 10 Memorization 3 Approach & Leung (2001)14 Studying 7 6 Problem Solving Modified from the 4 20 Awareness 5 Approach State Metacognitive Cognitive Strategy 5 Inventory by O’Neil & Abedi, Planning 5 (1996)15

Conference Session

Choice and Persistence in Engineering Education and Careers

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Joanna Wolfe, Carnegie Mellon University; Beth A. Powell, Tennessee Tech University

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

orientation to learning: they expect tests to measure whatthey have learned and internalize the messages of failure that these low grades appear to suggest.Many of the engineering faculty we interviewed agreed with students that tests should reflect amastery of the material: I can’t imagine why anybody would think that that was a good plan for giving tests. I teach statistics. How can a 30 be representative of the knowledge that you’re supposed to learn? (Female White faculty) I don’t know why it exists. I disagree with it because even a smart student who does well with a 50, I just think it’s—there’s no feeling of satisfaction that you’ve learned something. (Male White faculty) You don’t want to see that everybody doesn’t know half the

Conference Session

Trends in Engineering Education 1

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Maura J. Borrego, Virginia Tech; Michael J. Prince, Bucknell University; Christopher Evan Nellis, Virginia Tech; Prateek Shekhar, Virginia Tech; Cindy Waters, North Carolina A&T State University; Cynthia J. Finelli, University of Michigan

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

is planned: Lecturing and doing examples. Yeah, like they’ll lecture for a little bit and then they’ll do an example problems, lecture to us a little bit, like do just the concept, and then they’ll Page 24.1120.6 put the concept into an example and then they’ll do like an example or two. Then they’ll go back to another concept and just keep building on that, day in and day out. So, it’s very true about half the class doing other things, because I know a lot of people that are [thinking], ‘oh, I don’t learn in this class, I don’t do this, there’s no point in paying attention.’ The question wording

Conference Session

Student Beliefs, Motivation and Self Efficacy

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Anthony Bourne, Wright State University; Nathan W. Klingbeil, Wright State University; Frank W. Ciarallo, Wright State University

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

data showed increases in yearly retention numbers and highsatisfaction with the course from the students. Following years of success, the course was fullyincluded in the curriculum for engineering majors and continued success was apparent asretention rates among engineering majors continued to increase. As a result of these trends alongitudinal study was planned to provide greater understanding of the effects of the course.A longitudinal analysis of the effects of the EGR 101 intervention demonstrates the increase instudent performance as a result of the course.1 As summarized in figure 1, graduation rates forstudents taking EGR 101 increased significantly across ACT math scores from 18 to 30. Theseresults are for engineering students that

Conference Session

Innovative Use of Technology and the Internet in Engineering Education

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Erin Shaw, University of Southern California; Jihie Kim, University of Southern California; Jaebong Yoo, Samsung Electronics

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

general chair of the IUI (Intelligent User Interfaces) conference 2013 and the poster co-chair of the AI in Education conference 2013. She was the publicity chair for the AI in Education conference in 2007. She served as the workshop and tutorial chair of the IUI 2005 conference and as the publicity chair of the IUI Conference in 2003 and 2004. She has been the program committee member of AAAI, AIEd, EDM, IUI, WWW, K-CAP, SocialCom, Social Informatics, CADUI conferences, and refereed papers for various AI and user interfaces journals and conferences.Dr. Jaebong Yoo, Samsung Electronics Jaebong Yoo is a senior research engineer at Samsung Electronics for mobile service planning. He re- ceived a Ph.D. from Hallym

Conference Session

Student Learning, Problem Solving, & Critical Thinking 1

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Micah Lande, Arizona State University, Polytechnic campus

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

activities.8 Participants were asked to rank top 6 most important and bottom 6 least important activities. Abstracting Identifying constraints Seeking information Brainstorming Imaging Sketching Building Iterating Synthesizing Communicating Making decisions Testing Decomposing Making trade-offs Understanding the problem Evaluating Modeling Using creativity Generating alternatives Planning Visualizing Goal setting

Conference Session

Student Beliefs, Motivation and Self Efficacy

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Adam Kirn, Clemson University; Courtney June Faber, Clemson University; Lisa Benson, Clemson University

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

discussing future goals, Sugar Cone studentsgenerated detailed descriptions of their future possible selves and the steps needed to achieve theseselves: I’m going to stick with the undergraduate Bioengineering program, pursue a Master’s and then, my goal is to ultimately work for a medical device company in research and design so, yeah, that’ll be the ultimate goal. Probably a Ph.D. also after I start working too. (Jeremy, male bioengineer junior) I plan to do the five year Master’s program here. And then, I’m thinking about med school. I’ve taken the practice MCAT a couple of times, but I’m not sure that’s really something I want to do, but I know that I’m very interested in the imaging, bioimaging type

Conference Session

Engineering Faculty: Interactions, Influences and Issues

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Mariafé Taeví Panizo, James Madison University; John Hollander, James Madison University; Jesse Pappas, James Madison University; Olga Pierrakos, James Madison University; Robin D. Anderson, James Madison University

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

being able to graduate. According to them,disengaged students who are mainly focused on their grades or in graduating without takingadvantage of the whole learning experience often struggle in many areas. One participantspecifically reflected on this issue: ―[Disengaged students] don‘t have long term plans, [they are] waiting for you to tell them what to do and when. [There is] no initiative or creativity. Everything is a means to an end: to pass or to graduate. You wonder what will happen to students like these – how will they cope? In a program like ours, they are the ones who consistently struggle with their engineering identity.‖This section of the interview provides insightful information on faculty members

Conference Session

Methodological & Theoretical Contributions to Engineering Education 2

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Corey T. Schimpf, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Joyce B. Main, Purdue University, West Lafayette

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

University, West Lafayette Joyce B. Main is an Assistant Professor in the School of Engineering Education at Purdue University. She holds a Ph.D. in Learning, Teaching, and Social Policy from Cornell University, and an Ed.M. in Administration, Planning, and Social Policy from the Harvard Graduate School of Education. Page 24.1200.1 c American Society for Engineering Education, 2014 The Distribution of Family Friendly Benefits Policies across Higher Education Institutions: A Cluster AnalysisAbstractAlthough the underrepresentation of women in science and engineering tenure

Conference Session

Methodological & Theoretical Contributions to Engineering Education 2

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Danielle Almetria Smalls, Engineering Education Department at Virginia Tech; Holly M. Matusovich, Virginia Tech; Rachel McCord Ellestad, University of Tennessee, Knoxville

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

measurement in order to look at fluctuations invariables sampled over a period of time and around specific events and situations. ESM can beused to look at the activities that surround things like the optimal experience (from Flow). Forinstance, ESM can be used to look at the pedagogical practices that surround optimal learninggains in a classroom setting 2, 8.Best Practices of ESMESM were developed in order to capture information on a participant’s experiences as it occursand therefore the data collection instruments and plan must also support this goal. Based onprior implementations of ESM 2, there are already existing lists of benefits, drawbacks and bestpractices. Note that ESM can be used with a variety of sample sizes. Because the data that