Conference Session

ASCE Policy 465: Raising the Bar

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Jon Nelson, American Society of Civil Engineers; David Hornbeck, Southern Polytechnic State University; James Lambrechts, Wentworth Institute of Technology; Joe Manous, United States Army Corps of Engineers; Robert Stevens, Arcadis U.S., Inc; Leo Titus, ECS, Ltd; Jeffrey Russell

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

infra-structure projects, which included leading efforts on the Fort Point Channel interchange for the Central Artery/Tunnel project in Boston and recently the US Rte.1/I-95 interchange for the Woodrow Wilson Bridge project. Mr. Lambrechts holds a B.S. degree in civil engineering from the University of Maryland and a M.S. degree in geotechnical engineering from Purdue University. He is a licensed P.E. in Massachusetts. Mr. Lambrechts continues to be active with the Boston Society of Civil, severing several times as Chairman of the Page 14.940.1 Construction Technical Committee, and now as Chair of

Conference Session

Innovation in the Civil Engineering Classroom

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Diane Bondehagen, Florida Gulf Coast University; Simeon Komisar, Florida Gulf Coast University

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

Resources DesignAbstractA first semester, senior level civil and environmental engineering course, Water ResourcesDesign is, for most, the first experience for students at Florida Gulf Coast University in workingwith non-trivial design projects. To make the course experience as transferable as possible tofuture graduate engineering employment, students learn and apply hydraulic software to projectdevelopment and execution. The course takes an innovative case study approach with 5 designprojects required with rotating teams assigned to each project. The projects are taken from "realworld" engineering problem assignments which impart to students an appreciation of theconstraints and uncertainties inherent in the design process. Project 1 necessitates

Conference Session

Integrating Computer-based Technology in the Civil Engineering Classroom

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Ayhan Irfanoglu, Purdue University; Yating Chang, Purdue University

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

”, has been deemedsuccessful. It is hoped that it could be offered in a similar format in Spring 2010.IntroductionAs highlighted in “The Engineer of 20202: Visions of Engineering in the New Century”1, naturaldisasters can still have serious impacts on society. Of these disasters, earthquakes provide aunique challenge due to the fact that there is limited ability to forecast the level of damage futureevents would deliver to built-environment. The low frequency but high consequence nature ofmajor urban area earthquakes requires sharing of technical and societal experience at global levelto understand the processes involved and to develop successful engineering designs as well asorganizational understanding to minimize risk in urban areas. True to

Conference Session

Integrating Computer-based Technology in the Civil Engineering Classroom

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Chad Caldwell, United States Military Academy; Joseph Hanus, United States Military Academy; Adam Chalmers, United States Military Academy

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

purpose of this paper is to discuss the challenges, assessments, and applied solutionsassociated with teaching a specific Civil Engineering software package at the United StatesMilitary Academy. The software is a state-of-the-art information technology platform. TheCivil Engineering profession demands rapidly advancing skills in information technology. Suchexpectations are embedded in Outcome 10 of the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)Civil Engineering Body of Knowledge for the 21st Century: Preparing the Civil Engineer for theFuture (BOK2)1, which references Outcome 3k of ABET Inc. Proposed Criteria for AccreditingEngineering Program 2. The BOK2 Levels of Achievement Subcommittee recommends that civilengineers who have earned a

Conference Session

Laboratory Development and Technology in the Civil Engineering Classroom

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

David Torick, University of Pittsburgh; Dan Budny, University of Pittsburgh

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

with a well developed plan in order to ensure a successfulproduct. Our instructional design process can be summarized as a 6-step iterative process (Figure1); the unfilled arrow represents the iteration point in the process. Some of the productsdeveloped from this process will be discussed to further clarify the design process. Page 14.1198.2Figure 1- Curriculum Design ProcessLaboratory Development ProcessStep 1- Determination of Design ConstraintsAll design problems have a set of constraints and requirements that are important to clearlyidentify at the beginning of the development process. The main requirements for our newlaboratories are

Conference Session

International Aspects of Civil Engineering

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Richard Gash, United States Military Academy; Stephen Ressler, United States Military Academy; Eric Crispino, United States Military Academy

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

in 202510 (referred to hereafter as the Vision). This Vision foresees the demands ofglobalization requiring civil engineers to assume a greater role as leaders in society. Loomingissues such as population growth, competition over depleted resources, and ever-increasingurbanization will require engineers to BOK2 Outcomes CQ?develop innovative solutions. Right now we Foundationalare educating these engineers. In response 1. Mathematicsto the Vision, ASCE released in 2008 an 2. Natural sciencesupdated version of their Body of Knowledge 3. Humanities **(BOK2). The BOK2 outlined twenty-four 4. Social sciences

Conference Session

Implementation of the Civil Engineering Body of Knowledge and Recent ABET Experiences

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Ronald Welch, University of Texas, Tyler

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

research by any means, or does it? This was an experiment withhigh stakes as to whether a program can be built, assessed, and changes made to meetcurrent ABET criteria and CE program criteria based on the ASCE Body of Knowledge(BOKI).1 This was the challenge facing the new department chair in spring 2007.PreparationProgram Educational Objectives (PEO), Program Outcomes (PO), and Changes to theCurriculumThe first step was the development of POs in 2005 that would guide the program todemonstrate accomplishment of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes outlined within thefirst edition of the BOKI.1 This document modified using Bloom’s Taxonomy to definethe level of student activity was gaining acceptance to be the basis for the next round ofupdates to

Conference Session

Professional Issues in Civil Engineering Education

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Ronald Welch, University of Texas, Tyler

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

emanate from Outcomes 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9 of the UTTyler CE Program Outcomes (PO) presented in Table 1 which are derived from ABETOutcomes (3.d), (3.f), (3.g), (3.h), (3.i), and (3.j) in Table 2 and the CE program criteria.PO 9 specifically incorporates the new undergraduate professional requirements locatedwithin the CE program criteria. The difficulty arises in how do students demonstrate orfully understand what these outcomes are asking when the demonstration is possibly leftto a single event within the senior year. These professional outcomes have been referredto as “soft” outcomes by many when they were first presented as part of ABET EC2000Criterion 3. Others have used the word “squishy” when considering how difficult it is toassess

Conference Session

ASCE Policy 465: Raising the Bar

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Kenneth Fridley, University of Alabama; Debra Larson, Northern Arizona University; Kevin Hall, University of Arkansas; Kevin Sutterer, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology; James Alleman, Purdue University; Kenneth McManis, University of Louisiana; Jean-Pierre Bardet, University of Southern California; Brett Gunnink, Montana State University; George List, North Carolina State University; Roger Smith, Texas A&M University; Thomas Lenox, American Society of Civil Engineers

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

. Both the BOK1 and BOK2outcomes have the desired level of achievement defined according to Bloom’s Taxonomy for thecognitive domain4. Additionally, the BOK1 and BOK2 have recommended outcomeachievement targets for each state of the fulfillment pathway: the baccalaureate degree (B), post-baccalaureate formal education (M/30), and pre-licensure experience (E).To assess the impact of the BOK1 and BOK2 on civil engineering curricula and to facilitatebroad adoption of the new BOK concepts in civil engineering education, the ASCE Committeeon Academic Prerequisites for Professional Practice (CAP^3) established a new committee – theBOK Educational Fulfillment Committee (BOKEdFC) in late 2007. This new committee ischarged with (1) fostering the creation

Conference Session

Integrating Computer-based Technology in the Civil Engineering Classroom

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Vinod Lohani, Virginia Tech; Parhum Delgoshaei, Virginia Tech; Chelsea Green, Virginia Tech

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

industry for data Page 14.762.4acquisition and instrument control. LabVIEW provides extensive support for connecting   instrumentation hardware, a feature used in developing LabVIEW based activities in the course.Major programming concepts covered using LabVIEW are shown in Table 1.Table 1: LabVIEW Concepts/Applications in EngE1024Core Concept LabVIEW(LV) topic covered Activity/HomeworkA A: Introduction to LV Watching LabVIEW video that programming environment, VIs introduces the programming

Conference Session

Implementation of the Civil Engineering Body of Knowledge and Recent ABET Experiences

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Kevin Sutterer, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

categories, while three of the outcomes in thetechnical category include learning at the Master’s level. Those learning outcomes are (7)Experiments, (8) Problem Recognition and Solving, and (15) Technical Specialization.The three outcomes and the rubrics for assessing learning in those outcomes are in Table1 from ASCE’s second edition BOK report6.While the civil engineering community continues to discuss and evolve the BOK for civilengineers, departments of civil engineering would do well to examine carefully thecontent and intent of the BOK as a road map for the preparation of their students for the Table 1. ASCE Body of Knowledge outcomes rubric for outcomes 7, 8 and 156

Conference Session

International Aspects of Civil Engineering

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Eric Crispino, United States Military Academy; Andrew Bellocchio, United States Military Academy; Scott Hamilton, United States Military Academy; Aaron Hill, United States Military Academy; Stephen Ressler, United States Military Academy

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

EngineeringEducation (ExCEEd) Teaching Workshop hosted annually at West Point and other locations inthe US and adopted the content for the instructors at NMAA. The teaching workshop introducedthe new Afghan instructors to effective teaching methods inside and outside the classroom. Itincluded eight seminars, demonstration classes taught by the authors, and practice classes taughtby the Afghan instructors. The workshop seminars focused heavily on Joseph Lowman’s twodimensional model of effective teaching.1 This paper will describe the process of developingand implementing a new instructor workshop at NMAA and also highlight the many challengesand provide recommendations to growing a quality engineering faculty in any developing nation.The Crown Jewel of

Conference Session

ASCE Policy 465: Raising the Bar

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Craig Musselman, CMA Engineers

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

engineeringeducation requirements by NCEES is the assertion that the body of knowledge related to thelicensed practice of engineering has dramatically expanded in recent decades and will continueto do so. Concurrently, the number of credit hours required for graduation has decreased dueprimarily to political and economic pressures in virtually all states to provide baccalaureateprograms with fewer hours of coursework. Thus, the body of knowledge required to enter thepractice of engineering in the future does not fit within the curricula currently provided byundergraduate engineering programs.This is generally reflected in the following statement, which is provided in the report entitled“Educating the Engineer of 2020,”(1) prepared by the National Academy of

Conference Session

International Aspects of Civil Engineering

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Aaron Hill, United States Military Academy; Scott Hamilton, United States Military Academy; Eric Crispino, United States Military Academy; Andrew Bellocchio, United States Military Academy; Stephen Ressler, United States Military Academy

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

unique experiences and our development as faculty members,stressing those things we brought back that have enhanced our teaching in the US. While ourefforts were focused on one program, in one country, these lessons could be applied to anyfaculty members building educational programs elsewhere in the developing world.Creating a Civil Engineering Program in AfghanistanThe National Military Academy of Afghanistan (NMAA) located in Kabul, Afghanistan,recently graduated its first class as a result of the combined efforts between US advisors andAfghan military leadership.1 Its short history began in August 2003, when the Vice Dean forEducation from the US Military Academy (USMA) at West Point, NY, went to Afghanistan andmet with Afghan and US

Conference Session

Educational Issues in Civil Engineering

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Anant Kukreti, University of Cincinnati

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

conducted, theresearch training provided to the students, an overview of the projects completed by the students,the procedures used to evaluate the impact of the programs, the process used to track thestudents, and the outcomes of the programs. This paper will help others plan similar researchexperiences for engineering undergraduate students.IntroductionThe engineering schools in the U.S. now face internal and external challenges, impacting themarketability of our students. From 1985 to 2005, high school graduates went up 20.7%1 whileengineering bachelor degrees went down 5.7%2. The number of students indicating interest inengineering has dropped from 11% in 1985 to 7.2% in 20052. As we face this internal challenge,expanding global economy has

Conference Session

Educational Issues in Civil Engineering

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Wilfrid Nixon, University of Iowa; James Stoner, University of Iowa

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

pool of 36 semester hours (s.h.) of elective courses. The student’s portfolio and plan of study guide the selection of appropriate electives. The electives are used to fulfill two College requirements: 1) A general education component of 15 semester hours that ensures focused studies in non-technical areas; and 2) The remaining 21 semester hours provide flexibility for students to pursue a formal minor in an approved area or earn a certificate in a multidisciplinary area (e.g., Technological Entrepreneurship, Health and Biological Sciences, International Business, Law and Engineering) developed by the College in collaboration with other colleges on campus, or build strength in a technical

Conference Session

Sustainable and Urban Development

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Sanjaya Senadheera, Texas Tech

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

social and political order in order to arrest the potentially rapid deterioration inthe ecosystem and escalating scarcity of resources. Societies must develop creative andinnovative ways to educate communities, the younger generation in particular, to understand the Page 14.21.2long-term impacts of their actions and to find ways to create a sustainable world order.The term sustainability has generally been used in natural resource situations where ‘long term’is the focus. The US EPA (2007)1 defined sustainability as “the ability of an ecosystem tomaintain a defined/desired state of ecological integrity over time”. However, sustainability

Conference Session

Implementation of the Civil Engineering Body of Knowledge and Recent ABET Experiences

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Fred Meyer, United States Military Academy; Stephen Ressler, United States Military Academy

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

broad statements that describe the career andprofessional accomplishments that the program is preparing graduates to achieve. Programoutcomes are narrower statements that describe what students are expected to know and be ableto do by the time of graduation. These relate to the skills, knowledge, and behaviors that studentsacquire as they advance through the program.1 The ABET program evaluator (PEV) will expectto see that your program educational objectives are consistent with the mission of your institutionand that they support your program’s constituencies. The PEV will also expect your program Page 14.846.2outcomes to foster the attainment

Conference Session

Professional Issues in Civil Engineering Education

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Karen Chou, Minnesota State University, Mankato; Deborah Nykanen, Minnesota State University, Mankato

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

had worked briefly(about 1-½ years) as a structural engineer in a fairly large engineering firm specialized inhydropower projects, the author still felt inadequate when attempting to relate the engineeringconcepts to engineering practice. Her work was focused on finite element analysis of varioussections of a dam. As a junior faculty in a research oriented university, the first author felt thepressure of “publish or perish”. Early in her career, she was contacted by ASCE regardingopportunities available for faculty members like herself to engage in practical engineeringexperience in the summer. The caller also indicated the lack of interest among faculty membersin this opportunity. The first author offered her dilemma of “publish or perish

Conference Session

Educational Issues in Civil Engineering

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Charles Pierce, University of South Carolina; Juan Caicedo, University of South Carolina; Joseph Flora, University of South Carolina; Briana Timmerman, University of South Carolina; Wiley Graf, Midlands Technical College; Andrew Nichols, Marshall University; Timothy Ray, Midlands Technical Institute

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

learning meetings (3rd day of theEFFECT). Table 1. Current EFFECTs EFFECT Context and driving question Active learning modules Surveying A parking lot is to be paved. What is the area of • Estimation and measurement of areas parking lot that should be used to calculate the with small, regular shapes and large, volume of concrete? irregular areas Environmental A water filtration system is to be developed using • Concentration and calibration Engineering activated carbon. What are the dimensions of the • Material balance activated carbon filter

Conference Session

Educational Issues in Civil Engineering

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Ahmet Zeytinci, University of the District of Columbia; Philip Brach, University of the District of Columbia

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

developed in EXCEL, new unique individualized problemsmay be easily generated by the instructor with little effort, thus eliminating the traditional“fraternity” collection of problem sets of former students maintained for use by later students.Another important advantage is that using this method early in the course eliminates thosestudents who think they could complete the course relying on the effort of their classmates;students with such expectations tend to drop the course.Individualized Student ProblemThe steps for developing individualized problems may be summarized as: 1- Select a problem, such as the determination of the maximum deflection of a cantilever beam (see sample problem 1). 2- Express the parameters necessary to solve the

Conference Session

Innovation in the Civil Engineering Classroom

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Matthew Roberts, University of Wisconsin, Platteville

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

. Results of the assessment in-dicate that the project has a significant effect in developing historical perspective by thestudents. However, assessment results for the communication outcome indicate theproject has minimal impact in improving communication skills.IntroductionDeveloping a basic understanding of the history of civil engineering is important for un-dergraduate students. As noted by Petroski, “Engineering history is useful, if not essen-tial, to understanding the nature of engineering.”(1) Because of the importance of engi-neering history for civil engineering students, the newest version of the Body of Know-ledge (BOK) includes an outcome on “contemporary issues and historical perspectives.”To meet this outcome at the undergraduate

Conference Session

Laboratory Development and Technology in the Civil Engineering Classroom

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Steven Burian, University of Utah; Alfred Kalyanapu, University of Utah; Dasch Houdeshel, University of Utah; David Judi, University of Utah; Christine Pomeroy, University of Utah

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

environments provide theopportunity for asynchronous, on demand, and repetitive interaction, which may be a potentialsolution to these challenges, especially during tough economic when resources for traditional labimprovement are at a premium or nonexistent.Numerous approaches to create a virtual laboratory environment have been introduced inengineering education by (1) permitting lab experiments to be performed remotely6, (2)providing time flexible lab experiences, (3) providing capture of lab content for later recall, and(4) creating opportunities for lab experiences for impaired students. There have been virtuallaboratories created using 3D rendering technologies1,5, Java3 and other web-based programminglanguages, live video, web services4

Conference Session

Implementation of the Civil Engineering Body of Knowledge and Recent ABET Experiences

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Tomasz Arciszewski, George Mason University; Michael Bronzini, George Mason University; Mark Houck, George Mason University

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

and programs developed through these approaches will servethree purposes: to expand learning opportunities for our undergraduate students; to createattractive courses for our graduate students; and to offer courses to local practicingengineers interested in advancing their careers and planning to become professionalengineers. The courses might also help to fill the need for engineers to engage in lifelonglearning as a condition for maintaining professional engineering licensure, though servingthat need was not a primary design objective.Bridge CoursesOur concept of bridge courses was based on several assumptions or design criteria: 1. The defined set of bridge courses comprises a flexible system of post-BS 500-level (i.e., first-year

Conference Session

Professional Issues in Civil Engineering Education

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

E James Nelson, Brigham Young University; Gus Williams, Brigham Young University; Paul Richards, Brigham Young University; Grant Schultz, Brigham Young University; Travis Wight, Brigham Young University; Jeff Armstrong, Armstrong Forensic

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

included. This focus is based on the interest of the authors in identifying howcivil engineering departments view the proposed change, what impact they feel the change willhave on their programs, and what steps are being taken to prepare for these changes.Response rates for the three groups were 42% for academics, 50% for state licensing boards, and44% for engineering business leaders. All groups were very familiar with the proposed changes,with more than 80% of each group considering themselves more than somewhat familiar with theproposed changes as shown in Table 1.Support for the proposed changes was more widely varied. Educational leaders had the highestrate with 60% supporting the new model law proposed by NCEES. Other groups were

Conference Session

Innovation in the Civil Engineering Classroom

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Reynaldo Pablo, Indiana University-Purdue University, Fort Wayne

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

incorporatemultiple modules. Page 14.397.4 Figure 1: Unitized curtain wallVertical and Horizontal MullionVertical and horizontal mullions are the framing system, usually aluminum, which supports theglass and other sections of the curtain wall. Structural performance of these elements (i.e.,stresses, deflection) will be checked. The students will then apply their knowledge in the basicprinciples of engineering structural analysis/structural mechanics in this analysis process.The main loads to be considered in the analysis of the mullions will be wind loads. Wind actingupon the wall produces the forces which largely dictate its

Conference Session

Sustainable and Urban Development

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Clara Fang, University of Hartford

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

. I then incorporate the projects into my class lecturesand laboratory tutoring so that the students have the theoretical background and necessary skills Page 14.342.3to complete all components of the project. A description of two projects is provided below: 21) Land Surveying Project in CE 250 Geomatics (Sophomore Level)In the past two years, sophomore students have conducted several projects involving landsurveying on the University’s conservation easements. As an example, shown in Figure 1, thesurveying area includes 12 sectors (A-L) and the sectors

Conference Session

Integrating Computer-based Technology in the Civil Engineering Classroom

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Michael Chajes, University of Delaware; Glen Loller, University of Delaware; Frank Conforti, Bentley Systems; Scott Lofgren, Bentley Systems; Laura Meier, Bentley Systems

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

individuallywith the online requirement; however, important aspects can be overlooked by the student. Theonline “Feature Tip Library” of videos provides the instructor with an additional opportunity tocover important material for the students to have a comprehensive understanding of the software.At the end of the course, students participate in an online survey. Nine questions were posed tostudents on the blended learning experience. The results of the survey are summarized below inTable 1. Students responded with an 85% response rate. The majority of the responses werepositive to the blended learning experience. Nearly 95% of the students found that there wasample time to complete the online assignments. Approximately two-thirds of the students foundthe

Conference Session

Sustainable and Urban Development

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Farshad Rajabipour, University of Hawaii, Manoa; Aleksandra Radlinska, Villanova University

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

Objectives and Design of Course ActivitiesBefore developing detailed components of the class, it was essential to establish some principlesregarding the course objectives, instructional strategy, and methods for assessing studentperformance6. In doing so, we asked ourselves the following questions: 1) What is our approach in teaching sustainability: breadth or depth? 2) What do we want students to be able to do at the end of semester? 3) What active learning methodologies can we employ in this class? 4) How should we assess student performance?Answering the first two questions would determine which subjects should be covered in thiscourse. Sustainability is a broad topic that includes many areas of engineering, natural

Conference Session

Educational Issues in Civil Engineering

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Wei Zheng, Jackson State University; HuiRu Shih, Jackson State University; Yi-Lung Mo, University of Houston

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

-regulation, including strategies for goal-setting and organization, a self-oriented feedbackloop process, and recognition of the necessity of preparation and effort 9,10. He had proposedthree phases to Self-Regulated Learning, which include planning, monitoring, and self-reflection.Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) has become a research subject and educational practice in thecontext of Educational Psychology. The model of self-regulated learning has been developedthrough research and practice, and involves self-monitoring and self-correction of three aspectsof learning: self-regulation of motivation, behavior, and cognition. SRL refers to active learningthat is guided by three aspects of learning: (1) motivation to learn; (2) metacognition (i.e