-determination theory variablesincluding competence, autonomy, and relatedness, with the addition of effort scale items inaccordance with recommended practices [33]. As the number of student responses is very small,we share frequency distributions below.Competence, according to SDT, refers to a sense of accomplishment and self-efficacy related toa focus area [19]. Three questions contributing to the competence construct were, “during thiscourse I felt…” a. that I was successful in completing difficult tasks. b. that I was taking on and mastering hard challenges. c. very capable of learning the material.As illustrated in Fig. 1, most of the answers to this question were positive with three negativeresponses to “I felt that I was taking on and