Conference Session

Design: Content and Context

Collection

2008 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Richard Melnyk, United States Military Academy; Daisie Boettner, United States Military Academy

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

, because of theirleadership role or work ethic, carried more responsibility for the team.Results of Changes Introduced in 2007 Overall, the grading changes made produced positive results. Each change presentedadvantages as well as minor disadvantages that will be discussed in more detail. However,combination of the four changes made in 2007 produced a much different result in the finalcourse grades. Compared to the previous ten years, as depicted in Table 1, the final coursegrades in 2007 featured a course GPA much closer to the mean GPA of the students entering thecourse. While it was not the goal of the course directors to arbitrarily reduce the students’grades, the changes introduced appear to have tempered the impact that the natural bias

Conference Session

Student Teams and Design Skills

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Tamara Moore, Purdue University; Heidi Diefes-Dux, Purdue University; P.K. Imbrie, Purdue University

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

first-yearengineering course calls for students to develop a logical problem solving process whichincludes sequential structures, conditional structures, and repetition structures for fundamentalengineering problems; translate a written problem statement into a mathematical model; solvefundamental engineering problems using computer tools; and work effectively and ethically as amember of a technical team. One approach to having first-year students solve open-endedproblems is through team-oriented tasks called Model-Eliciting Activities (MEAs). These tasksare based upon the models and modeling perspective put forth by Lesh and Doerr7 and aredeveloped using six design principles8-9. The National Research Council’s Board of EngineeringEducation

Conference Session

Student Teams and Design Skills

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Gül Okudan, Pennsylvania State University; Madara Ogot, Pennsylvania State University; Girish Rao, SPRINT

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

), engineering ethics andgreen design. The second project is more intensive in terms of the project requirements anddeliverables to be completed in the same duration of seven weeks.In the second stage, the experimental group of eight teams was provided access to the DISTconfigured for the design problem. It was presented as a design support tool, and its usagewas optional in the completion of the project. Each design team was provided a laptop loadedwith the DIST, word processing, spreadsheet and Computer Aided Design (CAD) software. Page 11.205.8The teams were also rearranged (randomly) based on the peer

Conference Session

Novel Pedagogies 1

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

M. Razi Nalim P.E., Indiana University Purdue University, Indianapolis; Manikanda K Rajagopal, Indiana University - Purdue University Indianapolis; Robert J Helfenbein, Indiana University-IUPUI, School of Education

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

research articles and book chapters about contemporary education analysis in urban contexts in journal such as Curriculum Inquiry, the Journal of Curriculum Theorizing, Educational Studies, The Urban Review, the Review of Educa- tion, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies, and co-edited the volumes Unsettling Beliefs: Teaching Theory to Teachers (2008) and Ethics and International Curriculum Work: The Challenges of Culture and Context (2012). In 2008, Dr. Helfenbein served as the Section Chair for Critical Perspectives and Practices of AERA Division B-Curriculum Studies followed by serving as overall Program Chair for Division B in 2009 and was nominated into the Professors of Curriculum at AERA 2011. He is currently Editor of

Conference Session

Contextual Competencies

Collection

2012 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Joshua David Schwartz, Trinity University; Ashley Ater Kranov, ABET

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

engineers both in a research context and in the public arena. Itincludes such tasks as identifying current research papers and news articles on emergingtechnologies (providing working links to their sources and/or using proper citation style) as wellas describing recent engineering failures/successes they are aware of. Several of these questions(Appendix C, questions 6, 8 & 9) target this knowledge by stimulating an investigation by thestudent into current affairs in research and the public domain. It is also possible to incorporateother ABET Student Outcomes here with questions on ethical practice, lifelong learning, andother facets of an engineering education. Scoring of this section should follow a rubric such asthe one presented here for J1

Conference Session

Choice and Persistence in Engineering Education and Careers

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Beth A. Myers, University of Colorado Boulder; Jacquelyn F. Sullivan, University of Colorado Boulder

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

frequently by those respondents who had indicated multiple“extremely important” variables were: high school grade point average, math standardized testscore, comprehensive standardized test score, and the quality of the high school course load.Notably, students’ track records in calculus, physics and chemistry were ranked a bit lower thanthe overall quality of the high school course load. These variables will be used in the next phaseof our ongoing research to quantify the pool of engineering admissible students by demographicbreakdown.The math and physics high school participation rates by females and students from historicallyunderrepresented ethic and racial minority groups represent a significant barrier to equity,challenging engineering’s

Conference Session

Engineering Identity 1

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Lorraine N. Fleming, Howard University; Kalynda Chivon Smith, Howard University; Dawn G. Williams, Howard University; Leonard B. Bliss, Florida International University

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

and Ricardo from HSI2. Carlossaid: …I have my classes with [the engineering faculty] and they're really nice and they're very knowledgeable. They know what they're doing… I think it was Dr. S for engineering ethics…he would go through and explain everything, and then he would use his background…in transportation…for the Department of Transportation. He uses his background in that and… connect[s] everything else…He’s really good. The faculty is great here.Ricardo also reported: …[T]hey’re all really good…[T]hey have been really, really good [people]…[W]hen I Page 23.510.12 have… any doubts…I easily

Conference Session

Epistemic Research

Collection

2012 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Ji Hyun Yu, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Johannes Strobel, Purdue University, West Lafayette

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

knowing, focusing on its technical, social, and ethical aspects, whichare critical for solving engineering problems within dynamic and interdisciplinaryenvironments28.Epistemology is a field of philosophy, whose object of study is the construct “knowledge” itself.That is, engineering epistemology is a topic of philosophy and engineering, whose object is theconstruct ‘engineering knowledge’ concerning the concept of ‘truth’, the logical structure ofjustification, and the relationship of engineering knowledge to ‘reality’. We deal withepistemological beliefs, on the other hand, which are a special kind of belief, which is oftentreated as an empirical object of psychological inquiry.Since we aimed to have a comprehensive model of Engineering-related

Conference Session

ERM Potpourri

Collection

2012 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Megan F. Campanile, Illinois Institute of Technology; Eric M. Brey, Illinois Institute of Technology; Allison Antink Meyer, Illinois Institute of Technology; Norman G. Lederman, Illinois Institute of Technology

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

Technique for diseaseCatalytic Enlargement of Gold Nanoparticles via Redox Enzyme evaluationImaging Islet Development Mechanism underlying the disease In addition to research, students participated in weekly seminars on topics related todiabetes (basic research, clinical treatment public health and policy), weekly ethics seminars, andtours of clinical facilities. These activities were designed to expose students to the broad healthimplications of the disease and the importance of research related to the treatment and potentialcures for this disease.2.2 Assessment Program assessment has been conducted

Conference Session

Understanding Our Students I

Collection

2012 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Joanna F. DeFranco, Pennsylvania State University, Great Valley; Kathryn W. Jablokow, Penn State University; Sven G. Bilen, Pennsylvania State University, University Park; Andras Gordon, Pennsylvania State University, University Park

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

AC 2012-3118: THE IMPACT OF COGNITIVE STYLE ON CONCEPTMAPPING: VISUALIZING VARIATIONS IN THE STRUCTURE OF IDEASDr. Joanna F. DeFranco, Pennsylvania State University, Great Valley Joanna DeFranco earned her Ph.D. in computer and information science from New Jersey Institute of Technology, M.S. in computer engineering from Villanova University, and B.S. in electrical engineering from Penn State, University Park. She teaches graduate courses, including Problem Solving, Project Man- agement, Software Systems Design, Computer Forensics, Ethics and Values in Science and Technology, Advanced Software Engineering Studio, and an Information Technology seminar. Previous to entering academia, DeFranco held a number of

Conference Session

Identity and Culture

Collection

2012 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Brook Sattler, University of Washington; Jennifer A. Turns, University of Washington; Kathryn Ann Mobrand, University of Washington

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

., identity and relationship) in order to obtain a morecomprehensive view of student development. For example, by attending to students’ identitydevelopment, educators can examine the ways in which students understand community normswhile grappling with and defining their personal ethics. Further, by including relationshipdevelopment, educators can assist students in understanding and engaging in healthy and maturerelationships. Self-authorship combines these three domains for a more holistic perspective ofstudent development.Self-authorship scholars characterize college student development as the growth from externaldefinition to internal definition;5,6 more specifically Kegan describes this transformation as aprogression from the socialized mind to

Conference Session

Modeling and Problem-Solving

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Keith B. Fisher, Montana State University; Kevin R. Cook, Montana State University

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

. Be able to define problems so that CAE tools can be applied correctly Be able to model problems, and apply constraints, so that CAE tools can be applied correctly. Know how meshing is used in CAE and what the important factors in meshing are. Know how to correctly interpret and verify validity of analysis results. Be able to use FEA for stress analysis. Be able to use thermal analysis. Be able to use modal and vibration analysis. Be able to conduct kinematic simulations and use the data effectively. Be able to apply basic computational fluid dynamic analysis Understand the ethical and professional ramifications using CAE resultsThe problem solving objective are to

Conference Session

Open-Ended Problems and Student Learning

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Elliot P. Douglas, University of Florida; Mirka Koro-Ljungberg, University of Florida ; Zaria T. Malcolm, University of Florida; Nathan McNeill, University of Florida, Gainesville; David J. Therriault, University of Florida; Christine S. Lee, University of Florida

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

use. Thus, careful attention must be paid to the way in which open-ended problemsolving is taught.Introduction Open-ended problem solving is a skill that is central to engineering practice and one thatengineering students are required to develop. ABET (2009) criterion 3c states that students mustdevelop “an ability to design a system, component, or process to meet desired needs withinrealistic constraints such as economic, environmental, social, political, ethical, health and safety,manufacturability, and sustainability.”(p. 3) Open-ended problems are by nature ill-structured tovarying degrees. Such problems lack definition in some respect and as a result problemconstraints may be unclear, vaguely defined, or missing altogether

Conference Session

Assessing Student Learning

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Byron G. Garry, South Dakota State University

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

ideas, arguments, and points of viewg. an ability to communicate effectively 8. Developing skills in expressing oneself orally or in writingh. a recognition of the need for, and an ability to 12. Acquiring an interest in learning more by asking questions andengage in lifelong learning seeking answersi. an ability to understand professional, ethical and 10. Developing a clearer understanding of, andsocial responsibilities commitment to, personal valuesj. a respect for diversity and a knowledge of 10. Developing a clearer understanding of, andcontemporary professional, societal, and global issues commitment to, personal valuesk

Conference Session

Understanding Our Students

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Joachim Walther, University of Georgia; Nicki Wendy Sochacka, University of Georgia; Nadia N. Kellam, University of Georgia

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

queer, strange, funny, or disconcerting.” John Dewey (1932)Critical student reflection is increasingly recognized as a crucial part of engineering students‟overall learning 1-6. This is highlighted by a number of trends that focus the attention of theengineering educator on aspects such as students‟ awareness of engineering practice beingembedded in social contexts and their future role as professionals with ethical and societalresponsibilities 7-9. In part, such broader competencies are inherently reflective and point to theneed to specifically support students‟ development as critically reflective practitioners 10, 11

Conference Session

Trends in Engineering Education 1

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Maura J. Borrego, Virginia Tech; Michael J. Prince, Bucknell University; Christopher Evan Nellis, Virginia Tech; Prateek Shekhar, Virginia Tech; Cindy Waters, North Carolina A&T State University; Cynthia J. Finelli, University of Michigan

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

Dr. Cynthia Finelli is Director of the Center for Research on Learning and Teaching Engineering and research associate professor in the College of Engineering at the University of Michigan. She actively pursues research in engineering education and assists other faculty at U-M in their scholarly endeavors. Her current research interests include studying faculty motivation to change classroom practices, evalu- ating methods to improve teaching, and exploring ethical decision-making in undergraduate engineering Page 24.1120.1 students. Dr. Finelli leads a national initiative to create a taxonomy/keyword

Conference Session

Engineering Faculty: Interactions, Influences and Issues

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Lisa Massi, University of Central Florida; Caitlyn R. McKinzie, University of Central Florida; Andre J Gesquiere, University of Central Florida; Sudipta Seal, University of Central Florida

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

) ResearchExperience for Undergraduates program under Award No. EEC‐1156747. Any opinions,findings, and conclusions and recommendations expressed in this material are those of the Page 24.1226.14authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of NSF.References 1. Sweeney, A., Vaidyanathan, P., & Seal, S. (2006). Undergraduate research and education in nanotechnology. International Journal of Engineering Education IJEE 22(1), 157-170. 2. Sweeney, A., Vaidyanathan, P., & Seal, S. (2003). The promises and perils of nanoscience and nanotechnology: Exploring emerging social and ethical issues. Bulletin of Science and Technology, An

Conference Session

Engineering Identity 1

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Daniel Knight, University of Colorado, Boulder; Jacquelyn F. Sullivan, University of Colorado, Boulder; Daria A Kotys-Schwartz, University of Colorado, Boulder; Beth A Myers, University of Colorado Boulder; Beverly Louie, University of Colorado, Boulder; Jeffrey T. Luftig, Engineering Management Program, CEAS, University of Colorado - Boulder; Malinda S Zarske, University of Colorado, Boulder; Jordan Michelle Hornback

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

make informed engineeringmajor choices. The course is in pilot phase and is required for undeclared, aerospace and Page 23.1207.6mechanical engineering students, and may ramp up to serve most of the first-year cohort.Students meet in a large plenary format and in smaller discipline-specific sections.In the plenary sessions, class activities and peer feedback exercises provide skills practice andexploration of topics such as ethical challenges, new engineering developments, and historicalengineering achievements and disasters. Course highlights include visits from upper-divisionstudents and industry professionals who provide sage insights and

Conference Session

Undergraduate Students' Professional Skills and Reflection

Collection

2021 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access

Authors

Robert P. Loweth, University of Michigan; Shanna R. Daly, University of Michigan; Leah Paborsky, University of Michigan; Sara L. Hoffman, University of Michigan; Steve J. Skerlos, University of Michigan

Tagged Topics

Diversity

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

Conference Session

Alternatives to Traditional Assessment

Collection

2020 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access

Authors

Todd M. Fernandez, Georgia Institute of Technology; Kaela M. Martin, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University; Richard T. Mangum, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University; Cristi L. Bell-Huff, Georgia Institute of Technology

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

, LLC.Pellegrino, J. W. (2006). Rethinking and Redesigning Curriculum, Instruction and Assessment: What Contemporary Research and Theory Suggests. A Paper Commissioned by the National Center on Education and the Economy for the New Commission on the Skills of the American Workforce, (November), 1–15.Perry, W. G. (1968). Forms of intellectual and ethical development in the college years: A scheme. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.Rask, K. (2010). Attrition in STEM fields at liberal arts college: The importance of grades and pre-collegiate preferences. Economics of Education Review, 29, 892-900.Samson, G. E., Graue, M. E., Weinstein, T., & Walberg, H. J. (1984). Academic and occupational performance: A quantitative synthesis

Conference Session

Examining Social Ties and Networks

Collection

2015 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Patricia Kristine Sheridan, University of Toronto; Penny Kinnear, University of Toronto; Greg Evans, University of Toronto; Doug Reeve, University of Toronto

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

activity theory perspective, we explored how the interactions -- specifically theways students used the behaviors, language, gestures and visual elements -- have helped us tobegin to answer the question: How were teams exhibiting the same behaviors creating different team environments?Combining the data from both the video recordings and the SRIs, we observed what we havelabelled ‘togethering’-- “an analytical category that accounts for the ethical manner in whichindividuals engage, respond, and tune to each other, despite their cognitive, emotional, and otherdifferences”21 -- as the differentiating factor across these teams.“Togethering is not the result of some social contract or norms evolved

Conference Session

Discussions on Research Methodology: ERM Roundtable

Collection

2015 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Emily Dringenberg, Purdue University, West Lafayette; John Alexander Mendoza-Garcia, Purdue University, West Lafayette / Pontificia Universidad Javeriana - Bogota, Colombia; Mariana Tafur-Arciniegas P.E., Purdue University, West Lafayette; Nicholas D. Fila, Purdue University; Ming-Chien Hsu, Purdue University, West Lafayette

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

Conference Session

Faculty Development II

Collection

2015 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Jennifer A Turns, University of Washington; Brook Sattler, University of Washington; Lauren D. Thomas, University of Washington; Cynthia J. Atman, University of Washington; Richard Brown Bankhead III, Highline Community College; Adam R Carberry, Arizona State University; Kristine R. Csavina, Arizona State University, Polytechnic campus; Patrick Cunningham, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology; Douglas Karl Faust, Seattle Central College; Trevor Scott Harding, California Polytechnic State University; Ken Yasuhara, Center for Engineering Learning & Teaching, University of Washington

Tagged Topics

Diversity

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

campusDr. Patrick Cunningham, Rose-Hulman Institute of TechnologyDr. Douglas Karl Faust, Seattle Central College PhD in Physics, professor of Mathematics, physics, astronomy and computer science.Dr. Trevor Scott Harding, California Polytechnic State University Dr. Trevor S. Harding is Professor of Materials Engineering at California Polytechnic State University where he teaches courses in materials design, biomedical materials, and life cycle analysis. He has pre- sented his research on engineering ethics to several universities and to the American Bar Association. He Page 26.1323.1 serves as Associate Editor of

Conference Session

Works in Progress: Assessment and Research Tools

Collection

2016 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Tamara Ball, University of California - Santa Cruz; Linnea Kristina Beckett, University of California - Santa Cruz; Michael S. Isaacson, University of California - Santa Cruz

Tagged Topics

Diversity

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

continuously interacting with thedifferent social and material aspects of their surroundings such that each mutually constitutes theother. For a community of practice to function, members need to mutually generate andappropriate a shared repertoire of ideas, commitments, values, ethics and memories. Thiscorresponds to earlier observations by Brown et. al14 that learning communities are “bound byintricate, socially constructed webs of belief, which are essential to understanding what they do”(p.33). The co-generation of these shared practices and purposes motivates members to developand use various resources such as tools, documents, routines, expectations, vocabulary or othersymbol systems. As these resources are continuously shared back and forth

Conference Session

Student Teams, Groups, and Collaborations

Collection

2016 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Penny Kinnear, University of Toronto; Patricia Kristine Sheridan, University of Toronto; Greg Evans, University of Toronto; Doug Reeve, University of Toronto

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

members as well as from theperspective of the team, almost as if we were in the team. Togethering is described as “ananalytical category that accounts for the ethical manner in which individuals engage, respond,and tune to each other, despite their cognitive, emotional, and other differences.”9 The three keycomponents of togethering, which build upon each other, are engaging, responding, and tuning.When a team engages, each individual team member makes a commitment, manifested in action,to work with others in the joint activity. 9 When team members respond, they make efforts tocoordinate individual contributions (their engagements) through agreements and disagreements. 9When the engagement and response contributions of team members results in the

Conference Session

Retention

Collection

2017 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Niranjan Hemant Desai, Purdue University Northwest; George Stefanek, Purdue University Northwest

Tagged Topics

Diversity

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

within their departments. Subsequent lecturesincluded guest speakers, both faculty and industry, from a variety of engineering disciplines thatfocused on the challenges within their disciplines.The two-credit design course “Design Practicum”, was a hands-on design course with lecturesand labs that introduced students to relevant topics in engineering that included problem solving,team design, innovation, information technology, engineering, ethics in engineering, communityengagement and social responsibility. Online videos, lectures, and tutorials provided a "flippedclassroom" style course.Application of classroom concepts in industry: Saterbak et al.17 described an elective courseavailable to all freshman students in the School of Engineering

Conference Session

Teaching and Learning in Online Environments

Collection

2020 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access

Authors

Stefan Kleinke, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University; Brian Sanders, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University; Mark Douglas Miller, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

item either applicable (ifsignificantly below the ranking scale middle) or irrelevant (if significantly above the rankingscale middle). If just randomly ranked by a sufficiently large sample size of participants, it would6Since the course assignments and the associated use of the VLE are, obviously, obligatory tasks for students to accomplish in their studies (i.e.,exempt from Institutional Research Board (IRB) oversight IAW 45 CFR §46.10 (d) (1)), general ethical considerations were addressed by makingthe questionnaire about the VLE voluntary, incorporating an informed consent start page, and anonymous data recording (IAW 45 CFR §46.10(d) (2)).be expected that each item’s mean rank statistically approaches the middle value of the rankingscale

Conference Session

Contextual Competencies

Collection

2012 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

David B. Knight, Pennsylvania State University, University Park

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

problems. These studies find that seniors list morefactors that could influence a solution, cover more problem space, and gather more informationthan first-year students2,3, suggesting that design education positively influences design learningoutcomes. Atman, Kilgore, and McKenna4 similarly compared design considerations for aplayground for first-years, seniors, and experienced practitioners at four institutions. Seniorsaligned more closely with experts than with first-years, providing further evidence that designskills are enhanced during college.Recent research on engineering education has focused on professional skills, includingmultidisciplinary skills, understanding professional and ethical responsibilities, andcommunication skills

Conference Session

Methodological & Theoretical Contributions to Engineering Education 3

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Alice L Pawley, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Canek Moises Luna Phillips, Purdue University, West Lafayette

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

Conference Session

Trends in Engineering Education

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Junaid A. Siddiqui, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Robin Adams, Purdue University, West Lafayette

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

sociolingual, epistemic, moral-ethical, psychological,aesthetic and other such philosophical questions. In other words it is a system of ourassumptions that are our answers to such questions as what do I believe about myself, what aresocial norms, what are my values, why are my values important, and how do I know thatsomething is true63. The theory is grounded in the constructivist paradigm which focuses on howhumans construct the meaning of their experiences. Unlike the paradigm of diffusion ofinnovations, which seeks predictability and reduction of uncertainty, in transformative learningtheory emergence and uncertainty are embraced as characteristic of the transformation process.The theory also focuses on communicative learning as distinguished from