Conference Session

Methodological & Theoretical Contributions to Engineering Education 1

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Jennifer A Turns, University of Washington; Brook Sattler, University of Washington; Ken Yasuhara, Center for Engineering Learning & Teaching (CELT); Jim L. Borgford-Parnell, University of Washington; Cynthia J. Atman, University of Washington

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Educational Research and Methods

Paper ID #9230Integrating Reflection into Engineering EducationDr. Jennifer A Turns, University of WashingtonDr. Brook Sattler, University of WashingtonDr. Ken Yasuhara, Center for Engineering Learning & Teaching (CELT)Dr. Jim L Borgford-Parnell, University of Washington Dr. Jim Borgford-Parnell is Associate Director and Instructional Consultant at the Center for Engineering Learning & Teaching at the University of Washington. He taught design, education-research methods, and adult and higher education theory and pedagogy courses for over 30 years. He has been involved in instructional development for

Conference Session

Student Learning, Problem Solving, & Critical Thinking 2

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Nathan M. Hicks, University of Florida; Amy Elizabeth Bumbaco, University of Florida; Elliot P. Douglas, University of Florida

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Educational Research and Methods

Paper ID #10737Critical Thinking, Reflective Practice, and Adaptive Expertise in EngineeringNathan Hicks, University of Florida Current graduate student in materials science and engineering at the University of Florida. Spent three years teaching high school math and science before returning to graduate school for an advanced degree.Amy Elizabeth Bumbaco, University of FloridaDr. Elliot P. Douglas, University of Florida Elliot P. Douglas is Associate Professor of Materials Science and Engineering, Dean’s Fellow for Engi- neering Education, and Distinguished Teaching Scholar at the University of Florida. He conducts research

Conference Session

Trends in Engineering Education 1

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Khairiyah Mohd-Yusof, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia; Fatin Aliah Phang, Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia; Aziatul Niza Sadikin, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia; Syed Ahmad Helmi, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia; Mohd Johari Kamaruddin, Centre of Lipids Engineering & Applied Research (CLEAR), Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia.

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Educational Research and Methods

. Page 24.382.1 c American Society for Engineering Education, 2014Determining the effect of an engineering overview assignment on first year studentsAbstractAn engineering overview assignment given in the Introduction to Engineering course aims tosupport first year students to learn about engineering, and motivate them to see it as theirfuture career. In addition to learning from the literature, students also interviewed at leasttwo practicing engineers to produce the group report and presentation for the assignment. Todetermine the impact of the assignment, a study was conducted in one of the classes byanalyzing the group reports and individual reflections written after its completion

Conference Session

Student Learning, Problem Solving, & Critical Thinking 3

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Eric L. Wang, University of Nevada, Reno; Ann-Marie Vollstedt, University of Nevada, Reno

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Educational Research and Methods

Page 24.66.1 c American Society for Engineering Education, 2014 A Method for Adjusting Group-Based GradesAbstractGrades for assignments completed as an individual are a reflection of a student’s actual work,whereas the grade for a group assignment is easily confounded by the effects of their teammates(positively and negatively). Assigning grades to individuals for a group project is importantbecause instructors want to assign grades that reflect effort as well as content. Since all studentsin a group typically receive the same grade for a group assignment, group grades have theundesirable effect of obscuring a student’s true performance. Thus, it is desirable to develop amethod which could be

Conference Session

Choice and Persistence in Engineering Education and Careers

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Joanna Wolfe, Carnegie Mellon University; Beth A. Powell, Tennessee Tech University

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Educational Research and Methods

Engineering)The quotations above reflect a common experience for engineering students: norm-referencedgrading (or grading on a curve). Norm-referenced grading has often been linked to problems ofretention in engineering and other STEM fields. In their widely cited study on whyundergraduates leave the sciences, Seymour and Hewitt attribute norm-referenced grading tocreating a competitive atmosphere where students are pitted against one another—an atmospherethat alienates many otherwise capable students[1]. Individual engineering faculty have likewisespoken out against the practice for fostering a competitive atmosphere that discourages studentsfrom developing the collaboration competencies ABET now requires [2, 3]. The popular pressalso links norm

Conference Session

Pedagogy and Learning 1

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Glenn W. Ellis, Smith College; Halimat A. Ipesa-Balogun, Smith College; Yanning Yu, Northwestern University; Yezhezi Zhang, Smith College; Xi Jiang, Smith College

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Educational Research and Methods

students to reflect upon the effectiveness ofthis approach. The students together proposed that anyone posting an authoritative source mustalso post a summary of the content of the source. Later they continued to improve upon this ideaand soon required anyone posting an authoritative source to process it and include in their notehow the authoritative source could be used to improve the ideas in the group’s discourse.MetadiscourseStudies have shown that when students are engaged in metacognitive activities (e.g., self-reflection, self-explanation, or monitoring), their learning is enhanced. However, metacognitivethinking is not spontaneous. Thus, it is important to incorporate metacognitive support in thedesign of learning environments (Lin, X

Conference Session

Engineering Student Experiences

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Deborah Tihanyi, University of Toronto; Penny Kinnear, University of Toronto

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

idea of possible selvesand identity play to examine this process.Interactive Response and InteractionsFrom our early observations of the students’ use of the portfolios, we could see that identitywork and play occur in a variety of contexts, mediated by individual reflections as well as theresponses and interactions of other individuals. These observations informed our categorizationof “Interactive Response” (IR) as a site of learning mediated by diverse interactions with bothpeople (instructors, peers, friends/family, clients) and symbolic artifacts (e.g., professional codesof ethics). In this conception of IR, we pick up on Hattie and Timperley’s broader notion offeedback as provided by multiple “agent[s]”[8] in response to a particular

Conference Session

Engineering Faculty: Interactions, Influences and Issues

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Lisa Massi, University of Central Florida; Caitlyn R. McKinzie, University of Central Florida; Andre J Gesquiere, University of Central Florida; Sudipta Seal, University of Central Florida

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Educational Research and Methods

specific setting.19 Observation of the expert helps the novice to develop aconceptual model of the task which provides a useful framework within which the novice canorganize, interpret, and reflect on feedback from the expert.19 The apprenticeship model is thecore of the undergraduate research experience, whereby a faculty researcher mentors anundergraduate student through hands-on, authentic, self-directed scientific investigation thatmakes an original contribution to the field.Out-of-class experiences are as equally effective as class-related experiences on improvededucational outcomes, suggesting that a holistic approach fosters students’ college success.20Extra-curricular opportunities for undergraduate students to be involved in faculty

Conference Session

Engineering Faculty: Interactions, Influences and Issues

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Mariafé Taeví Panizo, James Madison University; John Hollander, James Madison University; Jesse Pappas, James Madison University; Olga Pierrakos, James Madison University; Robin D. Anderson, James Madison University

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Educational Research and Methods

developing students‘ autonomy), SocialReconstructionism (in which teaching encourages students to become critical and activethinkers), and Enterprise (in which teaching involves equipping students with skills required tothrive in their respective fields. Within each of these contexts, engagement is not only definedslightly differently each time, but the way the faculty are presupposed to lead the studentstowards engagement is different as well. In another interesting study, Rotter20 found thatcommon perceptions of average students in different majors vary greatly in terms of perceivedvalues and personality characteristics. This reflects not only the general tendencies of studentswho gravitate towards each major, but also shows how the faculty in

Conference Session

Trends in Engineering Education 2

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Eden Fisher, Carnegie Mellon University; Indira Nair, Carnegie Mellon University; Mustafa A. Biviji, E2RG

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Educational Research and Methods

. Page 24.576.3Students are introduced to a range of concepts that have been captured in the literature,including: models of innovation processes,2 roles in innovation,3 factors that influencecreativity4, 5 and innovation skills that can be practiced.6During the opening lecture, the students are also introduced to the mental models ofinnovation experts1 and the Framework for Organizing Mental Models of Contributors toInnovation from earlier work (Figure 1.) As they will be hearing from experts throughoutthe course, this framework is offered as a tool to help focus and organize listening,questioning and their written reflections on individual seminars. From an educationalperspective, this “innovation fishbone” is a type of “advance organizer” to

Conference Session

Student Learning, Problem Solving, & Critical Thinking 2

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

James A. Kaupp, Queen's University; Brian M Frank, Queen's University

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Educational Research and Methods

activities1. IntroductionHigher order skills such as problem solving or critical thinking are key attributes forgraduates of any engineering program, are amongst industries highly desired skills fornew employees and are considered a hallmark of a university education  1-5 . The application of critical thinking helps students solve ill-defined, open-ended,complex problems through the analysis and evaluation of information, evaluatingarguments, and developing conclusions resulting from sound reasoning. These complexproblems are typical of those encountered in professional engineering practice, andrequire the reflective, self-regulatory judgment exemplified by critical thinking. Whilemost programs claim to develop critical thinking in some manner

Conference Session

Student Beliefs, Motivation and Self Efficacy

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Nora B. Honken, University of Louisville; Patricia A Ralston, University of Louisville; Kate E. Snyder, University of Louisville

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Educational Research and Methods

associated with adaptive outcomes.19 This scale is composed oftwo subscales: one that measures the belief that effort leads to positive outcomes (4 questions)and the other that measures the belief that effort has a negative, inverse relationship withintelligence/ability and does not contribute to positive outcomes (5 questions). A sample itemreads, “It doesn’t matter how hard you work – if you’re not smart, you won’t do well.” All theitems of the scale are listed in the Appendix. Each item of the scale was answered on a six-pointLikert scale (Strongly disagree = 1 to Strongly agree = 6). After reversing the five itemsmeasuring the inverse relationship, items were averaged to form a composite measure of effortbeliefs, with higher scores reflecting a

Conference Session

Methodological & Theoretical Contributions to Engineering Education 2

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Danielle Almetria Smalls, Engineering Education Department at Virginia Tech; Holly M. Matusovich, Virginia Tech; Rachel McCord Ellestad, University of Tennessee, Knoxville

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Educational Research and Methods

while it is happening instead ofthe reflective state many survey and interview methods propose. Because of the desire to capturedata within the moment, it is particularly important that the methods used are appropriate andsufficiently enticing to garner and immediate response for the population being studied. Page 24.1365.2This present study is part of larger study that examines the ways students develop conceptualunderstanding. In the current phase of the study we want to gather information aboutengineering students while they are engaged in learning practices in engineering classrooms.Specifically, we want to understand student motivation and

Conference Session

Student Learning, Problem Solving, & Critical Thinking 3

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Megan Kenny Feister, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Carla B. Zoltowski, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Patrice Marie Buzzanell, Purdue University, West Lafayette; William C. Oakes, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Qin Zhu, Purdue University

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Educational Research and Methods

intogreater detail about, and reflect on, the concepts probed in the individual and team climateinstrument. Participants offered insights into aspects of ethical decision making that were notdirectly present in the instruments, as well as offering a richer description of the often complexteam interactions as the participants experienced them. The interview data offered insight intoboth ethical issues encountered by the individuals and teams, as well as more generalinformation about the team process and how individuals perceived these experiences. As aresult, we found evidence of the categories probed by both the individual and team climateinstrument, as well as new but important aspects of these processes. This paper discusses thefindings about team

Conference Session

Methodological & Theoretical Contributions to Engineering Education 3

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Alice L Pawley, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Canek Moises Luna Phillips, Purdue University, West Lafayette

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

represent aspects of the social the right names? reality observed? Theoretical validation: Do the The research process needs to be Interpretations need to reflect the concepts and relationships of the able to capture the full extent of the coherence and complexity of the theory appropriately correspond social reality studied. social reality under investigation. to the social reality under investigation? Procedural validation: Which Strategies need to be implemented Processes need to be implemented features of the research design in the research design to mitigate to mitigate risks of mis

Conference Session

Innovative Use of Technology and the Internet in Engineering Education

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Edward J. Berger, University of Virginia; Edward Pan, University of Virginia; Amy Orange, University of Houston-Clear Lake; Walter Fredrick Heinecke, University of Virginia

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Educational Research and Methods

support learning. We donot consider the full spectrum of social media tools, nor do we focus on the most current (forinstance, twitter). The origins of this study were shaped by the most rapidly-maturingtechnologies of the late 2000’s, as well as those that appeared to offer the highest relativeadvantage compared to other technologies (see the diffusion of innovations discussion below).These rapidly-maturing technologies are blogging and video, and both lend themselves tosubstantial user-generated content.The scholarship on blogging as an educational tool continues to emerge. Much recent work hasfocused on the use of blogs for reflective, self-expressive, peer critique, or highly-individualizedauthoring, and in many cases each student in a class

Conference Session

Methodological & Theoretical Contributions to Engineering Education 3

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Christina Smith, Oregon State University; Alec Bowen, Oregon State University; Devlin Montfort, Oregon State University; Milo Koretsky, Oregon State University

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

, or the difference between what studentsindicated were their personal study habits compared to how they would tell a student who caresonly about understanding to study, reflecting on their epistemological beliefs. Elby found thatmost students study differently, focusing on formulas and practice problems rather than onconcepts and real-life examples, than how they would tell someone else who is trying to acquire Page 24.684.4a “deep understanding.”21(pS56) He concludes that “[s]tudents perceive ‘trying to understandphysics deeply’ to be a different activity from ‘pursuing good grades’...” as one result of studentsbelieving rote learning is

Conference Session

Methodological & Theoretical Contributions to Engineering Education 1

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Gurlovleen K. Rathore, Texas A&M University

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

(connectsexplication to illumination), the Communication loop (connects creative synthesis toexplication), and the Rossman loop (connects creative synthesis to explication, illumination,through the validation process to incubation, or immersion to lead to perfection of product).Using this model, the author attempts to answer two questions: 1) “what is the experience ofcreating a mathematical model of a natural phenomenon?” 2) “What role do feelings play in thecreative process?” (p. 286).Shaw examined his and 11 other scientists and engineers’ experiences through an interviewprocess to understand the experience of creating an invention. Prior to the interview, he gave the11 (all male) scientists and engineers a week to reflect on a question: what is the

Conference Session

Methodological & Theoretical Contributions to Engineering Education 1

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Lauren D. Thomas, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

their abilityto act on their own. For a graduate student or new faculty member, their role within thedepartment puts some limitations on their ability to change their context. Their individual actionsto reach their goals with contextual bounds in mind, shape their academic identity in importantways. Mathieson22 examines agency of new faculty members in the midst of a curriculum changewithin their department. The change required addressing individual teaching philosophy andresearch engagement. The study explains the different experiences of these faculty members inresponding to the change. Their responses were different, but reflected their individual valuesand identities within the academic context.Institutional strandThe institutional strand

Conference Session

Student Learning, Problem Solving, & Critical Thinking 3

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Nicole P Pitterson, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Ruth A. Streveler, Purdue University, West Lafayette

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

dictates theinteraction of students with the material and each other so as to increase their learning.In contrast, active learning has been described as the process by which students engage inactivities which causes them to reflect on their own learning [5]. Students are thereby forced tothink about how their level of participation or contribution to the learning process affords themthe ability to improve their mental and physical learning of the concept in a desired manner. Inthis student-centred approach to instruction, the instructor provides students with the opportunityto engage actively while learning independently from one another through the gathering ofinformation, thinking and problem-solving activities they are expected to complete

Conference Session

Student Learning, Problem Solving, and Critical Thinking 1

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Cynthia B. Paschal, Vanderbilt University

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Educational Research and Methods

response may be sufficient ifplacement information is provided even though other survey items such as starting salary orforwarding address may not be provided. Thus, a qualified use of RR2 can be appropriate. Asthe cohort of graduating students is a clearly defined population, UH + UO is zero in thissituation.As noted above, response rates vary significantly and are often much lower than desired. Whenresponse rate goes down, the probability that the survey data will reflect an accurate picture ofplacement goes down. To illustrate this, a simulation of survey responses was performed. A Page 24.131.3dataset of 300 graduating students was created with

Conference Session

Engineering Faculty: Interactions, Influences and Issues

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Michael Geoffrey Brown, University of Michigan; David B Knight, Virginia Tech Department of Engineering Education

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

affected by theexternal influences of employers with particular workforce needs20 and the expectationsof their accrediting agency21.A significant body of research suggests that a faculty member’s academic field, andimplicitly their experiences in that field, influence curricular and instructional decisionmaking22-24. The Academic Plan reflects these findings in its attention to the role ofacademic discipline, both as the unit (department) level and the individual (faculty) level.Accounting for discipline, personal characteristics such as gender and prior experiencesmay also shape instructional choices25-27. For example, engineering faculty members’experiences in industry may shape their approach to teaching, encouraging instructionalprocesses that

Conference Session

Pedagogy and Learning 1

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Laura Hirshfield, Oregon State University; Jaynie L. Whinnery, Oregon State University; Debra M. Gilbuena, Oregon State University; Milo Koretsky, Oregon State University

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Educational Research and Methods

canuse feedback to evaluate the current conceptions of their students, address errors, reinforcestrengths, reduce the learners’ cognitive loads, encourage reflection and stimulate considerationof alternative solution paths.3,8,12,13 In other words, feedback allows for comparison between adesired educational outcome and actual student performance.9 The instructor can use feedback tofacilitate learning and performance through interaction, information sharing, guidance,encouragement, and reinforcement.12,14Providing feedback for students has been found to be significantly and positively related to gainsin engineering design skills and professional skills, such as communication, teamwork andcritical thinking.4,15,16 Feedback is powerful because it

Conference Session

Student Beliefs, Motivation and Self Efficacy

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Courtney June Faber, Clemson University; Sarah Jane Grigg, Clemson University; Adam Kirn, Clemson University; Justine M. Chasmar; Lisa Benson, Clemson University

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

these higher-level executive functions such as planning, monitoring,evaluating, and revising guide problem solving processes and are vital in monitoring progresstowards goals.31 Students using limited metacognitive processes typically are unable to identifyand correct errors in problem solving attempts. Metacognitive tasks have been shown to becorrelated to successful problem solving attempts.28 There are two distinct components ofmetacognition: knowledge about cognition and regulation of cognition. Knowledge of cognitionrefers to the reflective aspect of metacognition and includes three components: declarativeknowledge (knowledge about self and about strategies), procedural knowledge (knowledge abouthow to use strategies), and conditional

Conference Session

Engineering Student Experiences

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Janet Callahan Ph.D., Boise State University; Patricia Pyke, Boise State University; Susan Shadle Ph.D., Boise State University; R. Eric Landrum, Boise State University

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Educational Research and Methods

the 2007-2008 academic year, the CTL started a faculty learning community (FLC) program(Cox, 2001).13 The program has involved interdisciplinary communities of 8-10 faculty in ayear‐long process of inquiry to promote faculty development and enhance student learning. Theprogram is designed to stimulate dialogue, reflection, and innovation in teaching, to foster asense of community, and to promote scholarly teaching practice. In the early years of thisprogram, a number of STEM faculty were involved in interdisciplinary dialogue aroundundergraduate research, first year student-success, and active learning in large enrollmentcourses. More recently, with support from the Idaho STEP project, we have supported twoSTEM-specific FLCs. In 2010-2011, an

Conference Session

Engineering Student Experiences

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Denise Wilson, University of Washington; James J. Pembridge, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical Univ., Daytona Beach; Caitlin H. Wasilewski, Seattle Pacific University

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Educational Research and Methods

, especially concerning class sizes, access toresources, and community. The most salient are differences in class size as smaller universitiestend to have smaller class sizes as seen in our two study populations. Several studies haveexplored differences in class size and have noted that while grades do not explicitly reflect Page 24.1025.5knowledge gains, there is a negative relationship between grades and class size 40. In K-12  environments it has been shown that smaller classes offer faculty the opportunity to giveattention to individual students leading to increased individualized learning and the greaterfrequency of support for active

Conference Session

Student Learning, Problem Solving, & Critical Thinking 3

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Peggy C. Boylan-Ashraf, Stanford University; Steven A. Freeman, Iowa State University; Mack Shelley, Iowa State University

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Educational Research and Methods

Engineering EducationThe different roles assumed by faculty members reflect the type of curriculum used in theengineering classrooms. Some instructors enjoy the authoritarian stance and provide students thetraditional education 38. In the traditional education format students are told what they areexpected to know and concepts are presented deductively 10,16. Other instructors become toolaissez-faire and become a silent member of the classroom or mainly an observer—whereinstruction primarily allows students to grow and learn on their own with little or no extrinsichelp 25.The role of the instructor in the classroom for course development in engineering educationcannot be divorced from the understanding of theories of learning and the effectiveness of

Conference Session

Choice and Persistence in Engineering Education and Careers

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Beth A. Myers, University of Colorado Boulder; Jacquelyn F. Sullivan, University of Colorado Boulder

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Educational Research and Methods

: Beginning to Quantify the Pool of Engineering-Eligible Prospective Students through a Survey of Access PracticesMotivationTo educate the number of engineers necessary to meet demand and propel our nation’scompetitiveness, as well as to continuously populate an engineering workforce reflective of therich diversity of our nation, we must engage people from backgrounds historicallyunderrepresented in engineering—especially women and minorities. Compelling drivers forincreasing the number and diversity of engineers have been promoted by the National Academyof Engineering (NAE)1, the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the current U.S. president 2-3 ; however, the representation of women and people from racial minorities

Conference Session

Choice and Persistence in Engineering Education and Careers

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Brianna L. Dorie, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Tamecia R. Jones, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Meagan C. Pollock, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Monica E. Cardella, Purdue University, West Lafayette

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Educational Research and Methods

need for increased STEM awareness, partly to increase interestin STEM majors & STEM careers, but also to develop an overall more technologically literatepopulace. Additionally, there is a concern that engineering should better reflect the nationalpopulation. Increasing diversity amongst engineering practitioners is important both from anequity perspective as well as a workforce development perspective (a more diverse populationmeans more diverse perspectives are represented, leading to innovation; also, to attract asufficient workforce we will need to attract women and underrepresented minorities). Researchsuggests that a majority of engineering undergraduates have a parent or another close familymember who is an engineer, and that this is

Conference Session

Trends in Engineering Education 2

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Conrad Tucker, Pennsylvania State University, University Park; Kathy Schmidt Jackson, Pennsylvania State University, University Park; Linda C. Schmidt, University of Maryland, College Park; Gül E. Okudan Kremer, Pennsylvania State University, University Park; Peifeng Yin

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Educational Research and Methods

studies in learning, thinking, and reaction time2. Below, we summarize some ofthe relevant works on cognition relating to our research based on the extended summary ofcognition, value and decision-making research by Sprehn18.Earlier studies on cognition began in 1940s, where laboratory studies aimed at identifying groupsof people with significant differences in their cognitive processes. Some of the predominanttheories of this epoch are: 1) Perceptual versus Conceptual Groupers3, 2) Sharpeners andLevelers4, 3) Field Dependency/Independency5, and 4) Impulsive versus Reflective Thinkers6,7.We refer the readers to Kozhevnikov8 for an in depth review in this area. One salient criticism ofthese early theories, as voiced by Walker9, Kogan and Saarni10