Conference Session

Engineering, Engineers and Setting Public Policy

Collection

2007 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

John Reisel, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

technical elective course in Mechanical Engineering. As part of thecourse, students were engaged in a semester-long project that resulted in the development byeach student of an energy policy that outlined the direction that they thought the United Statesshould take over the next 25 years with regards to electricity generation.The project consisted of several steps. First, each student had to choose one of nine possibleelectricity-generation techniques to research in depth. The students were then given two monthsto research the current state and projected improvements of their chosen technology, as well asthe economics, environmental impact, and public perception of their technology. The studentsthen were asked to prepare two reports on their

Conference Session

Engineering, Engineers and Setting Public Policy

Collection

2007 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

David Bodde, Clemson University

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

served as chairman of the Environmental Management Board, advising the Department of Energy on the cleanup of the U.S. nuclear weapons complex, and as a member of the National Research Council’s Board on Energy and Environmental Systems. Dr. Bodde holds the Doctor of Business Administration, Harvard University (1976); Master of Science degrees in nuclear engineering (1972) and management (1973), both from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT); and a B.S. from the United States Military Academy (1965). He was a soldier once, and served in the Army in Vietnam. Author of "The Intentional Entrepreneur: Bringing Technology and Engineering to the Real New

Conference Session

Engineering and Public Policy II

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Ida B Ngambeki, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Dennis R. Depew, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Melissa Jane Dark, Purdue University; Rylan C. Chong, Purdue University, West Lafayette

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

Paper ID #5937Approaches to Integrating Policy into Engineering EducationDr. Ida B Ngambeki, Purdue University, West Lafayette Dr. Ida Ngambeki is a Postdoctoral Researcher with a joint appointment in the Department of Technology, Leadership and Innovation and the Global Policy Research Institute at Purdue University. She has a B.S. in Engineering from Smith College and a PhD in Engineering Education from Purdue University. Her research interests include global engineering policy, motivation in engineering, and human-artefact interaction.Dr. Dennis R. Depew, Purdue University, West Lafayette From July, 2002 to June

Conference Session

Engineering and Public Policy Pioneering Courses

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Kristen Tull, Lafayette College; Sharon Jones, Lafayette College

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

program are either interested in engineering management careers, or areusing the degree as a foundation for careers other than engineering. Because of the diversestudent interests, the course is designed to allow the students to understand the pervasive role ofgovernment in the technical arena, and the need to use/manage technology within that context.The emphasis of the course material is on the federal level, however international, state, andlocal differences are included. This paper presents the curriculum for EP251 and discussesinstructor observations about how well the course works for sophomore engineering students.The instructor is interested in feedback about the need for such a curriculum.IntroductionLafayette College offers a sophomore

Conference Session

Engineering, Engineers and Setting Public Policy

Collection

2007 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Peter Mark Jansson, Rowan University; William Riddell, Rowan University; Nathan Vizzi, Rowan University; Krishan Bhatia, Rowan University; Ryan McDevitt, Rowan University

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

groups can be instrumental in overcoming initial marketbarriers to wind energy and initiating the first projects. The lessons learned from the experiencesof such groups provide valuable insight to renewable energy technology outreach and acceptancein other states. Across the U.S. there are over 30 formalized wind working groups16 as shown inFigure 2. Page 12.651.6 Figure 2: Wind Working Groups Are Shaded StatesThe experience thus far has been encouraging. An engineering student (and co-author of thispaper) is currently planning to present the results of the first NJWWG and the statistics from thefollow-up survey to the

Conference Session

Engineering, Engineers and Setting Public Policy

Collection

2007 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

David Haws, Boise State University

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

AC 2007-130: MARGINALIZING DISSENT: ENGINEERING AND THE PUBLICHEARING PROCESSDavid Haws, Boise State University I like to think of myself as a boundary spanner—bridging between “hard” science and “soft” skills. The bridge metaphor is attractive, but it probably implies more precision than I deserve (urban sprawl comes more to my mind). My “professional” degrees are in Civil Engineering (an undergraduate degree from the University of Utah; and a master’s and Ph.D. from Brigham Young University). I also have an undergraduate degree in English from the University of California at Berkeley, and master’s degrees in Instructional and Performance Technology, and Technical Communication from Boise

Conference Session

Engineering and Public Policy II

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Mickey R. Wilhelm P.E., University of Louisville

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

engineering talent neededover the next 20 years, after all. In fact, at the urging of engineering employers inpractically all technology economic sectors, the U.S. Congress is debating theliberalization of visa and green card policies for foreign nationals who hold degrees inSTEM fields. This solution should pose fewer difficulties in the future in terms ofcredentialing since ABET is now heavily involved in accrediting engineering programs atforeign universities, and NCEES is dutifully following along after ABET to provideroutes to professional licensure in the U.S. for graduates from accredited foreignuniversity programs.Further, limited resources for engineering education at U.S. colleges and universitiescould pose fewer problems because of the

Conference Session

Impacts of Public Policy on Engineering Education

Collection

2008 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Zarjon Baha, Purdue University; Bahawodin Baha, University of Brighton

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

AC 2008-1032: TECHNICAL VOCATIONAL AND ENGINEERING EDUCATIONIN AFGHANISTANZarjon Baha, Purdue University Zarjon Baha is currently professor of Building Construction Management at the College of Technology at Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana. Prof. Z. Baha received his BS degree from Kabul University and Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, MS degree from Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, and Ph.D. from North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina. Prof. Z. Baha has been teaching at Purdue University since 1982. Prior to 1982 he was working at the Faculty of Engineering at Kabul University, Kabul, Afghanistan. He served as the head of

Conference Session

Engineering and Public Policy Pioneering Courses

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Jacqueline Isaacs, Northeastern University; Christopher Bosso, Northeastern University; Carol Barry, University of Massachusetts-Lowell

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

. Her research focuses on plastics processing, particularly at the micro and nanoscales and their application to high-rate nanomanufacturing. Page 11.548.1© American Society for Engineering Education, 2006 Engineering and Public Policy at the Nanoscale: An Interdisciplinary Graduate CourseAbstractThe excitement and promise of nanotechnology provides a unique opportunity to increase publicawareness of the critical importance of science and technology to society in general and tostudents in particular. Nanotechnology and nanomanufacturing will require a more diversetechnical education of the

Conference Session

Engineering and Public Policy Division Technical Session 2

Collection

2018 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

R. Alan Cheville, Bucknell University; John Heywood, Trinity College Dublin; Charles James Larkin, Trinity College Dublin; Shaen Corbet, Dublin City University

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

economics from Trinity College Dublin. Dr. Larkin is a native of New York City and has been resident in Europe since 1998.Dr. Shaen Corbet, Dublin City University c American Society for Engineering Education, 2018 Economic and Pedagogical Analysis of an Alternative Model of Engineering EducationAbstractDespite the large number of commentaries on the current deficiencies of higher educationthere has been little work which undertakes careful analysis of alternative educationalstructures. To explore possible alternatives a model for engineering education developedover several years with feedback from ASEE conference attendees was analyzed at theHigher Education and Technological

Conference Session

Topical Public Policy Issues

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Richard Devon, Pennsylvania State University; Elizabeth Kisenwether, Pennsylvania State University; Richard Schuhmann, Pennsylvania State University; Robert Pangborn, Pennsylvania State University; Kim Barron, Pennsylvania State University

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

2006-1844: ENGINEERING EDUCATION AND THE GLOBAL ECONOMY: THESEARCH FOR POLICYRichard Devon, Pennsylvania State University Devon is Professor of Engineering Design and the Director of the Engineering Design Program in the School for Engineering Design, Technology, and Professional Programs at The Pennsylvania State University, where he has received several teaching awards. He has directed both the Pennsylvania Space Grant Program and the Science, Technology, and Society Program at Penn State. Devon currently focuses on design education, global programs, and design topics such as design ethics, innovative design, and conceptual design communications.Elizabeth Kisenwether, Pennsylvania State

Conference Session

Engineering and Public Policy Pioneering Courses

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Robert Green, Mississippi State University; Jerry Emison, Mississippi State University

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

Engineering and Public PolicyAbstractThere exists a gap between engineering and public policy which must be bridged. Engineers areaffected by public policy but are seldom involved in setting policy. Engineers, and the decisionsthey make, also affect public policy. Those who set the policy frequently do not have a fullappreciation of the technological issues involved and the engineers often do not appreciate theimplication of their decisions on society. If engineers do not take a more active role in the settingof public policy, they will be left to work within the policies set by others who may lack adequatetechnical skills and they will be remiss in their duties as citizens to foster good policy. If thepolicy setters do not develop a greater

Conference Session

Engineering and Public Policy I

Collection

2012 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Timothy R.B. Taylor P.E., University of Kentucky; Johne' M. Parker, University of Kentucky

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

AC 2012-4240: USING PUBLIC POLICY THEORY TO IMPROVE POWERENGINEERING EDUCATIONDr. Timothy R.B. Taylor P.E., University of KentuckyProf. Johne’ M. Parker, University of Kentucky Johne’ M. Parker is an Associate Professor of mechanical engineering. Page 25.1438.1 c American Society for Engineering Education, 2012 Using Public Policy Theory to improve Power Engineering EducationIntroductionAs society continually increases its reliance on complex, highly integrated technological systemsto function, engineering education must evolve to include not only traditional engineeringsubjects

Conference Session

Teaching Engineering and Public Policy

Collection

2008 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Philip Dunn, University of Maine; Kenneth Nichols, University of Maine

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

enabling students to provide a public service asthey accumulated knowledge and experience; however, both projects missed the opportunity tocreate cross-disciplinary student teams. (The DOT-commissioned survey arose, in part, frombelated recognition that transportation engineers needed to work closely with dozens ofcommunities in the major road-improvement initiative of which this one but one segment.) Afterall, productive future relationships emerge through a common working environment whereasproblems often result from misunderstanding or poorly understanding the perspectives andresponsibilities of other parties Consequently, at our university, a professor of public administration and one ofconstruction management technology are

Conference Session

Engineering and Public Policy I

Collection

2012 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Mickey R. Wilhelm P.E., University of Louisville

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

of the opportunities available through an engineering education.”As a result, the NAE has instituted an initiative, called Changing the Conversation, toassist in addressing the obvious media blind spot, as well as the relative ignorance of thegeneral public, to the importance of engineering in solving the problems confrontingsociety. This effort is also designed to address the shortage of K-12 students who preparethemselves to study engineering in colleges and universities.The NAE cites three important reasons for improving the public understanding ofengineering: (1) Sustaining the U.S. capacity for technological innovation; (2) attractingyoung people to careers in engineering; and (3) improving technological literacy.While the NAE was

Conference Session

Public Policy in Engineering Education

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Stephanie Adams, Virginia Commonwealth University; Rosalyn S. Hobson, Virginia Commonwealth University

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

undergraduate and graduate degrees. This is a desirable population for the engineering community for many reasons. First,they are a large untapped population; the Department of Veteran’s Affairs (VA) estimates that2.1 million of today’s veterans served on active duty at least 30 days. 9 Second, the diversitythose veterans bring. More than 14 million active duty members are women, 30% come fromracial minority groups and 10% are Hispanic. 9 In 2008, more than 93% of active-duty enlistedmembers were high school graduates, while 6% had GEDs. 11 Third a large number of thepopulation has engineering or technology related occupations. According to the Veterans’ Education for Engineering Science Report published by theNational Science Foundation

Conference Session

Engineering and Public Policy I

Collection

2012 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

J. Mendoza-Garcia, Purdue University and Pontificia Universidad Javeriana; Ida B. Ngambeki, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Lamis J. Behbehani, Purdue University; Demetra Evangelou, Purdue University, West Lafayette; P. Suresh C. Rao, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Monica Farmer Cox, Purdue University, West Lafayette

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

engineering pedagogy, technological literacy, and human- artifact interactions.Prof. P. Suresh C. Rao, Purdue University, West Lafayette Suresh Rao is the Rieth Distinguished Professor of ecological engineering in the School of Civil En- gineering at Purdue University. Prior to coming to Purdue 13 years ago, Rao was on the faculty for 25 years at the University of Florida. His research and educational interest span a broad spectrum of trans-disciplinary themes at the intersection of how human societies alter natural landscapes, and how multitude of ecological adverse impacts cascade through complex coupled systems. He teaches multiple courses with emphasis on application of sustainability and resilience concepts to better

Conference Session

Public Policy in Engineering Education

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Tom C. Roberts P.E., Kansas State University

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

presentation outlines the value of engineer understanding of and contributions to problemsolving, technological complexity, risk, systems engineering, and states that engineers are“ordinary people with typical needs and problems, who hold the right to vote.” Norm Augustineis quoted as saying: “Engineers today seem to be the stealth profession, the silent occupation…If we as engineers are unwilling to responsibly speak out on issues within our realm ofexpertise, who then will?”Discussion of the questions posed by Sherra Kerns ensued during the 2004 Annual Conferenceand a decision was made by several “activist members” to continue the discussion at the 2005Annual Conference by sponsoring a session.3 Barbara Waugh, HP University Relations andGovernment

Conference Session

Engineering and Public Policy Division Technical Session 1

Collection

2018 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Andrew Katz, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Donna M. Riley, Purdue University, West Lafayette

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

engineering education can use the standard positive/negativedichotomy. Positive externalities from engineering education could include the general spillovereffects associated with public education such as a more highly educated population [33]. In aneconomic sense, another positive externality could be the increased technological innovation andeconomic growth in a society associated with having more engineers [34], [35], which generallyimproves standards of living in a society. The basic idea here suggests that engineering studentswould incur the costs (and benefits) of deciding to study engineering, which eventually translatesinto a country having more engineers. Negative externalities from engineering education mightarise from having more

Conference Session

Engineering and Public Policy II

Collection

2012 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Gary Cruz, Great Minds in STEM

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology(ABET) - the recognized accreditation body in the U.S. for applied science, computing,engineering, and technology. This paper provides an overview of various demographics of theHSIs and Emerging HSIs in relevance to ABET engineering accreditation. Data on institutionalcharacteristics, faculty, student enrollment, persistence and graduation will is presented. Thispaper is a prelude to a proposed study investigating the broader implications on the value of“Hispanic-Serving” and “Hispanic-Enrolling” in the context of engineering education forHispanic students. The goal of this study is to eventually provide summative recommendationsregarding the role of ABET-accredited HSIs and ABET-accredited Emerging

Conference Session

Engineering and Public Policy I

Collection

2012 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Ganapathy Subramanian Natarajan, Texas Tech University; Chinweike I Eseonu, Texas Tech University; David A. Wyrick PE, PEM, Texas Tech University

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

. Eseonu’s area of research focus is public policy and technical entrepreneurship, with focus on the effect of networks and technical professionals on the policy process. Mr. Eseonu is a graduate of the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Ottawa and received his Masters in Engineering Management at the University of Minnesota.Dr. David A. Wyrick PE, PEM, Texas Tech University David A. Wyrick is Professor and Bryan Pearce Bagley Regents Chair of Engineering at Texas Tech University. He has accepted the position of Dean of the School of Science and Engineering at Al Akhawayn University in Ifrane, Morocco. His interests include effective management of technology, small and medium enterprises (SMEs

Conference Session

Public Policy in Engineering Education

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Bill Hutzel, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Tehri Parker, Midwest Renewable Energy Association

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

AC 2011-46: SOLAR WORKFORCE DEVELOPMENT IN THE MIDWESTBill Hutzel, Purdue University, West Lafayette Bill Hutzel is an Associate Professor in the Mechanical Engineering Technology Department at Purdue University. He manages the Applied Energy Laboratory that is used for teaching and applied research into High Performance Buildings.Tehri Parker, Midwest Renewable Energy Association Tehri Parker is the Executive Director of the Midwest Renewable Energy Association (MREA). Tehri has served as a member of the Focus on Energy renewable energy coordinating committee, an advisory group that developed Wisconsin’s statewide renewable energy incentive and training programs. She is also on the Milwaukee Shines Solar City

Conference Session

Teaching Engineering and Public Policy

Collection

2008 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Joseph Gillespie, Rowan University; Krishan Bhatia, Rowan University; William Riddell, Rowan University

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

biodiesel emissions characterization from engines and home heating equipment, wind measurement and assessment, and methanol fuel cell flow field design and visualization. Before joining Rowan, Bhatia actively studied reformate gas carbon monoxide poisoning of hydrogen fuel cell catalyst layers for automotive applications as well as hybrid and electric vehicle power train design.Peter Mark Jansson, Rowan University Peter Mark Jansson is an Associate Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Rowan University teaching AC and DC electric circuits, power systems, sustainable design and renewable energy technology. He leads numerous Sophomore, Junior and Senior Engineering Clinic Teams

Conference Session

Engineering and Public Policy I

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Rylan C. Chong, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Dennis R. Depew, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Ida B Ngambeki, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Melissa Jane Dark, Purdue University

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

Paper ID #5936Teaching social topics in engineering: The case of energy policy and socialgoalsMr. Rylan C. Chong, Purdue University, West Lafayette Rylan Chong is a master’s student in the Information Security Program and affiliated with the Center for Education and Research in Information Assurance and Security (CERIAS) at Purdue University. He has a B.S. in Computer Science from Chaminade University of Honolulu. His research areas include global policy, ethics, information security and assurance, technology adoption, biometrics, education, pharmaceutical supply chain, and energy.Dr. Dennis R. Depew, Purdue University

Conference Session

Public Policy in Engineering Education

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

David A. Koonce, Ohio University; Jie Zhou, Ohio University; Cynthia D. Anderson, Ohio University; Dyah A. Hening; Valerie Martin Conley, Ohio University

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

students and workers in high technology fields has made STEM education ahigh priority topic for education research1. The United States continues to fall in categories ofSTEM education. In 2007, the United States ranked 21st out of 30 Organization for EconomicCo-operation and Development (OECD) countries in science, and ranked 25th in mathematics2.These losses are not just in absolute numbers. In 2003, there were 104.35 engineering degreesper one-thousand 24-year old persons in Taiwan, 27.33 in the United Kingdom, but only 19.48 inthe United States3.Concern over this has risen to the highest ranks of government, with President Obama declaringthat the country had slipped from the top position it once held in the field of innovation andadvanced

Conference Session

Engineering and Public Policy I

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

John Alexander Mendoza-Garcia, Purdue University / Pontificia Universidad Javeriana

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

interest in social issues. Page 23.391.1 c American Society for Engineering Education, 2013 Developing an instrument to assess student’s prior knowledge, and possible interest in public policy courses.IntroductionAwareness and understanding of the public policy process and analysis have emerged as keythemes of undergraduate engineering education. Undergraduate engineering students need toknow this process and analysis to support the current and future regulation of technology.1–3Identification of students’ knowledge, attitudes and beliefs towards public policy is needed

Conference Session

Engineering and Public Policy I

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

James J. Pembridge, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical Univ., Daytona Beach; Kacey Beddoes, Purdue University

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

students.Dr. Kacey Beddoes, Purdue University Dr. Kacey Beddoes is a postdoctoral researcher with ADVANCE-Purdue in Purdue’s School of Engineer- ing Education. She received her Ph.D. in Science and Technology Studies (STS) from Virginia Tech in 2011 and serves as managing editor of Engineering Studies and assistant editor of the Global Engineering Series at Morgan and Claypool. Page 23.245.1 c American Society for Engineering Education, 2013 Beyond SES: Individual Financial Status as a Predictor of Persistence for High-performing Undergraduate

Conference Session

Teaching Engineering and Public Policy

Collection

2008 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Cindy Orndoff, Florida Gulf Coast University

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

AC 2008-2726: A STUDENT OVERVIEW IN PRACTICAL SUSTAINABILITYCindy Orndoff, Florida Gulf Coast University Dr. CYNTHIA (CINDY) ORNDOFF is an Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental and Civil Engineering. She received a B.S. in 1984, an M.S. in 1997 and a Ph.D. in 2001, all in Civil Engineering from University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Prior to her coming to FGCU she was an Assistant Professor in Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of Missouri, Columbia. She has taught courses in infrastructure management, planning, introduction to transportation and construction management. She has a passionate interest in sustainability as well as policy which led to her

Conference Session

Public Policy in Engineering Education

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Martin S. High, Oklahoma State University; Joseph M. Nowakowski, Muskingum University

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

Page 22.1678.16References Cited1 Written Testimony of William H. Gates Chairman, Microsoft Corporation And Co-Chair, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation Before the Committee on Science and Technology United States House of Representatives March 12, 2008.2 Vivek Wadhaw, ―Shortage of Engineers or a Glut: No Simple Answer,‖ available at http://wadhwa.com/blog/2010/12/04/shortage-of-engineers-or-a-glut-no-simple-answer/ (last accessed Jan. 13, 2011).3 Written Testimony of William H. Gates Chairman, Microsoft Corporation And Co-Chair, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation Before the Committee on Science and Technology United States House of Representatives March 12, 2008.4 William P

Conference Session

Engineering and Public Policy II

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Andrew J Bates, Polytechnic Institute of New York University

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

establishing basic concepts,application contexts and analysis frameworks. It also provides the opportunity to establish therisk analysis and management knowledge as an engineering discipline using analogies from otherengineering disciplines such as structures or hydrology. The American Society of Civil Engineers recognized the importance of risk when itstated: Page 23.695.4 “The manner in which civil engineering is practiced must change. That change is necessitated by such forces as globalization, sustainability requirements, emerging technology, and increased complexity with the corresponding need to identify, define