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Conference Session
Capstone Courses II
Collection
2006 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
C. Stewart Slater, Rowan University; Mariano Savelski, Rowan University; Robert Hesketh, Rowan University
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
2006-279: GREEN ENGINEERING DESIGN THROUGH PROJECT-BASEDINDUSTRIAL PARTNERSHIPSC. Stewart Slater, Rowan University C. Stewart Slater is a Professor and Founding Chair of Chemical Engineering at Rowan University. He received his Ph.D., M.S. and B.S. from Rutgers University. His research and teaching interests are in the area of membrane technology where he has applied this to fields such as specialty chemical manufacture, green engineering, bio/pharmaceutical manufacture and food processing. He is the recipient of the 1999 Chester Carlson Award, 1999 and 1998 Joseph J. Martin Award, 1996 George Westinghouse Award, and the 1989 Dow Outstanding New Faculty Award.Mariano Savelski, Rowan
Conference Session
Interdisciplinary Experiences and Assessment in Environmental Engineering
Collection
2012 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Angela R. Bielefeldt, University of Colorado, Boulder
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
AC 2012-3782: COMPETITIONS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEER-ING CAPSTONE DESIGN PROJECTS: STUDENT PREFERENCES ANDLEARNING OUTCOMESDr. Angela R. Bielefeldt, University of Colorado, Boulder Angela Bielefeldt, Ph.D., P.E., is an Associate Professor in the Department of Civil, Environmental, and Architectural Engineering at the University of Colorado, Boulder (CU). She was attracted into environ- mental engineering as a high school student participating in a summer research program at Iowa State University. While at CU, she has mentored more than 30 undergraduate student research projects. Page 25.336.1
Conference Session
Integrating Sustainability Across the Curriculum
Collection
2012 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Stefan J. Grimberg, Clarkson University
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
recently he and his students are investigating the most efficient process to convert farm waste into biogas using anaerobic digestion. Page 25.1415.1 c American Society for Engineering Education, 2012 Using a P3 funded project as part of a capstone design class in environmental engineeringWhile many capstone design courses are limited to paper designs and some involve laboratorytesting this design course was more comprehensive in scope providing for a realistic/professionallearning environment. Over the past 15 years students enrolled in the capstone design project inthe
Conference Session
Problem- Project- and Case-based Learning in Environmental Engineering
Collection
2015 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Paula Ann Monaco, Texas Tech University; Maeghan Marie Brundrett, Texas Tech University; Dylan Christenson, Texas Tech University; Kevin A. Nguyen, Texas Tech University; Audra N. Morse, Texas Tech University
Tagged Topics
Diversity
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
performing well following theimplementation of the WEAT design prompt.IntroductionCapstone design courses vary between engineering programs and can be structured to includeindustry partners, service-learning projects for communities or competition design projects1.Utilization of a competition prompt as the capstone design project provides many benefits forstudent education2. For instance, students may receive a real-world problem submitted by aregional municipal utility tasking them with the job of treatment upgrades to improve plantperformance. Unlike the use of hypothetical academic prompts, additional opportunities aregiven to the students when they engage with a competition prompt, such as the ability to tour theproject facility, receive
Conference Session
Environmental Engineering Division Poster Session
Collection
2018 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
George A. Hunt, University of Nebraska, Lincoln
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
nature of the teams were such that each student neededto provide specific skills in order to complete the project. After completion of the course,the authors noted that a key concern was that the civil engineering students did notparticipate as much as the students from the other disciplines.Another potential issue with multidisciplinary capstone design involving civil andenvironmental engineers is the scale of the infrastructure design projects that arecommon in these disciplines. Frank et al.5 described a multidisciplinary capstone seniordesign project program at Florida State University. Their multidisciplinary programincludes mechanical, electrical and computer, and industrial and manufacturingengineering. The authors report that the program
Conference Session
Interdisciplinary Experiences and Assessment in Environmental Engineering
Collection
2012 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Cheryl J.K. Desha, Queensland University of Technology; Charlie Hargroves, The Natural Edge Project
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
AC 2012-4314: APPLYING THRESHOLD LEARNING THEORY TO TEACHSUSTAINABLE BUSINESS PRACTICE IN POST-GRADUATE ENGINEER-ING EDUCATIONDr. Cheryl J.K. Desha, Queensland University of Technology Cheryl Desha is a lecturer in sustainable development in the faculty of engineering and science (School of Earth, Environment and Biological Systems), Queensland University of Technology. She is also a Principal Researcher in the Natural Edge Project (TNEP) research group, a non-profit academic network for research, education, and innovation for sustainable prosperity. Desha graduated in 1999 from envi- ronmental engineering and worked for consulting engineering firm Arup for four years, also undertaking work placement within the
Conference Session
Capstone Courses II
Collection
2006 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Andrew Borchers, Kettering University; David Rinard, Steelcase, Inc.; Trevor Harding, Kettering University; Terri Lynch-Caris, Kettering University
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
research interests include wear phenomenon in orthopeadic implants, ethical development in engineering undergraduates, and pedagogical innovations in environmental education. Currently, Trevor serves on the ERM Division Board of Directors and on the Kettering University Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning Advisory Board.Terri Lynch-Caris, Kettering University Dr. Terri Lynch-Caris, Ph.D., P.E., is an Assistant Professor of Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering at Kettering University. She serves as the Co-PI for the NSF project titled “Development of a Course in Environmentally Conscious Design and Manufacturing for Undergraduates” and will team-teach the course once developed. Her
Conference Session
Intersdisciplinary Courses and Environmental Undergraduate Research
Collection
2007 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
David Braun, California Polytechnic State University; Emmit B. Evans, California Polytechnic State University; Randall Knight, California Polytechnic State University; Thomas Ruehr, California Polytechnic State University
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
technicalrecommendations. The preceding steps constitute the milestones in the project, allowing studentsto receive timely feedback prior to project completion.The course webpage, http://www.ee.calpoly.edu/~dbraun/courses/TGE/UNIV350.html1, containsvaluable course resources in addition to those described in this work. Page 12.946.2Learning Objectives and OutcomesConceived as the capstone course for the Minor in Environmental Studies, the course seeks toachieve an ambitious scope of objectives; perhaps too ambitious. The course syllabus describesthe course goals: “This interdisciplinary course enables students to examine global environmental issues from
Conference Session
Service - Learning Projects
Collection
2008 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Heather Wright, Michigan Technological University; Linda Phillips, Michigan Technological University; James Mihelcic, Michigan Technological University
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
Director of the International Senior Design program that allows undergraduates to combine the engineering capstone design course with field construction in a developing country. She is a co-author and illustrator for a book to be published in 2008 titled Field Guide in Engineering for Development Workers: Water Supply, Sanitation Systems, and Indoor Air Quality (American Society for Civil Engineers (ASCE) Press). Ms. Phillips brings over 20 years of project and company management experience to her professional practice-type classes.James Mihelcic, Michigan Technological University Dr. James R. Mihelcic is a Professor of Civil & Environmental Engineering at Michigan Technological
Conference Session
Service - Learning Projects
Collection
2008 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Paul Boyle, Rice University; Brent Houchens, Rice University
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
determined the effectiveness of the various purification techniques for removingcontaminants ranging from dirt and sediment to chlorine and bacteria. Also, the studentcompared the various techniques based on the rates of production of clean water, operation costs,energy efficiencies and sustainability.IntroductionA senior capstone design project was undertaken in the 2006-2007 academic year to create adevice for use as an educational tool for water quality and purification. Inspiration for theproject came from the fallout after hurricane Katrina. The project eventually lead to thefounding of a long-term water project for education and implementation in developing nations,where potable water is scarce1. Initially, the project built on a collaboration
Conference Session
Project-Based Service Learning
Collection
2009 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Angela Bielefeldt, University of Colorado, Boulder; Kurt Paterson, Michigan Technological University; Chris Swan, Tufts University
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
-2006 SL was incorporated intoa total of 38 undergraduate engineering courses taught by 32 professors and 5 teaching staffserving 721 undergraduate students. In 2006-2007 there were 39 undergraduate engineeringcourses that included SL taught by 31 faculty with a combined enrollment of more than 1250students. The main approach of the SLICE program to integrate SL into existing courses is theopposite of the EPICS program which created a series of separate courses with SL projects.SLICE does include some specifically interdisciplinary PBSL courses in the Junior and Senioryear, including Community-based Engineering Design Project II and III and the IntercollegiateEngineering Capstone Design Project. 8,9 Global Perspective ProgramAnother
Conference Session
Enviromental Engineering Division Poster Session
Collection
2015 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Veera Gnaneswar Gude P.E., Mississippi State University; Dennis D. Truax PE, BCEE, F.ASCE, Mississippi State University
Tagged Topics
Diversity
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
impact.Constructivist theories of learning also recognize that learning is a social activity6. This meansthat the laboratory instruction and project-based design courses can be identified as opportunitiesto improve students’ ability to work in teams, as well as their communication skills. As a result,many civil engineering programs now incorporate many of these dimensions in their designclasses, ranging from cornerstone to capstone design courses7.IllustrationsThe civil and environmental engineering department has implemented project (cooperativelearning) based exercises in the CE 3801 Environmental Engineering Laboratory course (juniorlevel civil engineering course). In this course, student groups (three to four) were formed tofacilitate team-based
Conference Session
Project-Based Service Learning
Collection
2009 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Beverly Jaeger, Northeastern University; Ethan LaRochelle, Northeastern University
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
, Northeastern UniversityAbstractCommunity partnerships comprise a core aspect of the Engineers Without Borders–USA (EWB-USA) mission. Since its inception in 2000 as a single chapter at the University of Colorado atBoulder, EWB-USA has grown to incorporate well over 250 chapters working with communitiesin 43 developing countries. This is largely through the efforts of young engineering students andtheir mentors. The overarching mission of EWB is primarily to provide support for communitiesin the developing world, by applying a broad range of engineering principles to generatesustainable solutions in challenging settings. Examples of a few past projects are water sanitationsystems, solar electrification, and compost sites converting waste into usable
Conference Session
Integrating Sustainability Across the Curriculum
Collection
2012 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Noel E. Bormann P.E., Gonzaga University; Mara London, Gonzaga University; Andrew Douglas Matsumoto, Gonzaga University; Melanie Ruth Walter; Spencer Joseph Fry
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
one particular sustainability focusedproject to explore differences that students perceive for the effort required to complete a projectand the perceived educational outcomes for projects that deal with traditional civil andenvironmental senior capstone design projects relative to projects that are focused onsustainability.The sustainability focused project that the students completed is entered in the US EPA 9thAnnual P3 Awards: A National Student Design Competition for Sustainability Focusing onPeople, Prosperity and the Planet. The project is sited in Kenya and integrates sustainabletechnology to improve sustainable development targeted towards women and children in thehome.The hypothesis submitted is that challenging sustainability
Conference Session
Sustainable Engineering
Collection
2006 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Janet Baldwin, Roger Williams University
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
treatment and water resources which would benefit greatly from thisfirst-hand experience. In addition, a design project for the senior capstone design course couldbe modeled on this project.Specifically, this project can be a learning tool to illustrate the determination of sustainability. InCriterion 3 Program Outcomes and Assessment, the ABET Engineering AccreditationCommission identifies skills that engineering graduates should possess. These include the abilityto design a system with realistic constraints including sustainability, economic, social, political,and manufacturability [3]. These constraints tend to be hard to incorporate into a design projectwhen the student is primarily focused on the technical aspects. My plan is to use this
Conference Session
Environmental Engineering Curricula I
Collection
2007 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Michael Butkus, U.S. Military Academy
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
AC 2007-1129: A SMALL-SCALE DESIGN AND BUILD PROJECT INBIOCHEMICAL TREATMENTMichael Butkus, U.S. Military Academy Page 12.114.1© American Society for Engineering Education, 2007A Small-Scale Design and Build Project in Biochemical TreatmentIntroductionEnvironmental engineers as well as engineers in other engineering disciplines, apply their skillsin a dynamic environment where single solutions are the exception rather than the rule.Additional “significant experiences” are required to help students develop a holistic appreciationfor professional practice issues and including open ended problem solving to prepare them forthe workplace.1 Such experiences should relate course material to
Conference Session
Service Learning Projects in Developing Countries
Collection
2009 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Bradley Striebig, James Madison University; Susan Norwood, Gonzaga University
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
.8This paper will address the design and outcomes associated with the implementation of theservice-based project in the course. The technological effectiveness will be discussed, as well asthe shortcomings of the implementation process. (Evaluation of the course development andother educational outcomes are discussed in a separate paper.9) Page 14.1362.3Program descriptionEngineering students could take part in various steps in the project-based program, as illustratedin Table 1. The elements of the project were distributed through senior design capstone coursesand the interdisciplinary study abroad course. The study abroad course was taught as a
Conference Session
Service Learning Projects in Developing Countries
Collection
2009 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Maya Trotz, University of South Florida; Amy Stuart, University of South Florida; Daniel Yeh, University of South Florida; Helen Muga, University of South Florida; Linda Phillips, University of South Florida; James Mihelcic, University of South Florida
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
Management, Professional Practice and Capstone Design. In 2000, at the request of her students, Ms. Philips started the International Senior Design (ISD) taking over 170 students to developing world countries to do their Capstone design projects (http://cee.eng.usf.edu/ICD). Ms. Philips is a lead author of the book Field Guide in Environmental Engineering for Development Workers: Water, Sanitation, Indoor Air, (American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) Press, 2009).James Mihelcic, University of South Florida Dr. James R. Mihelcic is a Professor of Civil & Environmental Engineering and a State of Florida 21st Century World Class Scholar at the University of South Florida. In 1997 he founded
Conference Session
Environmental Engineering Division Poster Session
Collection
2016 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
David C. Zgonc, United States Military Academy; Phil Dacunto P.E., United States Military Academy; Emily Arija Ezerins, United States Military Academy; Dalton Jefferson Alexander Combs, United States Military Academy; Jacob Neil Palmer, United States Army
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
) changes over time.7 In fact, in another publication, Chua claims that the morea student participates in project-based learning, the better the student grows in critical thinkingand generates better project-related products.5 For similar reasons, Rasul et al. advocate early,deliberate preparation of a student before their senior year capstone project.8 The importance of capstone design courses in an engineering education is well-documented.9Ward writes that capstone projects “bring all aspects of an undergraduate student’s experiencetogether”.10 Ward further notes that the completion of capstone projects do not only benefit thestudent but also serve as validation by potential employers of the student’s ability to applyknowledge and generate
Conference Session
Service-Learning in Developing Communities
Collection
2007 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Linda Phillips, Michigan Technological University; Ann Brady, Michigan Technological University; Karina Jousma, Michigan Technological University
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
AC 2007-1638: INTERDISCIPLINARY INTERNATIONAL SENIOR DESIGN:HOW SERVICE LEARNING PROJECTS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIESSUPPORT ABET ACCREDITATIONLinda Phillips, Michigan Technological University Linda Phillips, P.E. is Lecturer of Civil & Environmental Engineering at Michigan Technological University and Director of the International Senior Design program that allows undergraduates to combine the engineering capstone design course with field construction in a developing country. Ms. Phillips brings over 20 years of project and company management experience to her professional practice-type classes.Ann Brady, Michigan Technological University Ann Brady is an Assistant Professor and directs the
Conference Session
Problem- and project-based learning in environmental engineering
Collection
2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Susan E. Powers, Clarkson University; Stefan J. Grimberg P.E., Clarkson University
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
provide experiential learning siteson campus for project-based and student-centered professional experiences that are integral totheir preparation for further studies or employment. The nature of the student involvement versusthe quality of their deliverables and output has been assessed. Research projects (graduate orundergraduate) that include direct on-on-one interaction with a faculty advisor have generatedthe highest quality work – though this approach is also time intensive and not sustainable.Integrating this system into senior capstone design classes involves more students and is a morerealistic model for the real world. Final deliverables from these classes are, however, morevaried in their quality.IntroductionThe use of on-campus
Conference Session
Problem- Project- and Case-Based Learning in Environmental Engineering
Collection
2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Andrew Jason Hill, University of Southern Indiana; Zane W. Mitchell Jr., University of Southern Indiana
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
using a single complex designproblem as with capstone projects, a collection of simpler problems were used. Each lecturetopic was organized around a “class problem set” packet consisting of problem statements andblank space for students to record the solutions and relevant background information (equationdevelopment, definitions, etc.). Problems were selected or designed to include not only relevanttechnical data, but also a real world context. All problems were solved in class with the studentscompleting all calculations and providing input on the general solution strategy. To illustrate the technique, consider the following problem from one of the class problemsets on “Equilibrium”, which included a total of seven problems. It is a
Conference Session
Problem- and project-based learning in environmental engineering
Collection
2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Mary Cardenas, Harvey Mudd College; David Wayne Kelley, Department of Geography, University of St. Thomas, St. Paul, MN; Warren Roberts
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
of Geography David has a B.A. in Biology and a M.S. in Agronomy, and spent almost 10 years working with international development projects in various African countries before moving to Minnesota in 1995. He earned his Ph.D. in soil science and wa- ter resource science from the University of Minnesota and joined the Geography department at St. Thomas in 2000. David currently teaches courses in GIS, physical geography, remote sensing, and weather and climate. He is particularly interested in working with students and other researchers to explore landscape processes related to environmental quality, and in the application of geographic information science for land assessment and management.Prof. Warren Roberts
Conference Session
Sustainable Engineering
Collection
2006 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
David Pines, University of Hartford; Brian Gallant, University of Hartford
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
” of fluid mechanics, hydrology, water treatment, structures, etc. would make them that much more excited about their upper level core courses.• The project-based senior capstone design experience mentored by practicing professional engineers has been a very successful course at the University of Hartford. Many of our students stay in the area and work for the companies or local and state government entities that sponsor these projects and we did not want our students to lose that experience.The other concern that needed to be addressed was funding for the students to implement theirdesign. It is expected that the class will have 10 – 15 students and it is hoped that most if not allof these students would have the opportunity to
Conference Session
Environmental Engineering Division Poster Session
Collection
2017 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Bradley A. Striebig, James Madison University
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
engineering work, he is also a published freelance photographer who has works with local and international NGOs. Dr. Striebig was the founding editor of the Journal of Engineering for Sustainable Development and an assistant editor for the Journal of Green Building. c American Society for Engineering Education, 2017 2017 ASEE Annual Conference Utilizing the Chesapeake Bay as a Basis for a Place-based Multi-component Project in Earth Systems EngineeringA systems engineering course is required by all engineering students for the completion of theundergraduate general engineering degree. This paper discusses the implementation of asemester-long, placed-based
Conference Session
Hands-on Laboratory and Design Experiences in Environmental Engineering
Collection
2012 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Radian G. Belu, Drexel University; Irina Nicoleta Ciobanescu Husanu, Drexel University; Dunia Tania Periverzov, Drexel University (Tech.)
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
project is an underway project for MET 421/422/423 (Senior Project Design), preformed by Page 25.120.5a team of four students, two electrical and two mechanical seniors. MET 421/422/423 is asequence of three-quarter capstone project design courses required for all the BSET majors. Thecourse focuses on planning, development, and implementation of an engineering design project,which includes formal report writing, project documentation, group presentations, and projectdemonstrations. The goal of these courses is to demonstrate the ability to manage a major projectinvolving the design and implementation of products with a mixture of electrical and
Conference Session
Environmental Engineering Division Technical Session 3
Collection
2017 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Annalisa Onnis-Hayden , Northeastern University; Carolina Beatriz Venegas-Martinez, Northeastern University; Marissa P. Dreyer, Northeastern University
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
improve water-use efficiency and watershedmanagement around the world. Moreover, providing clean water and restoring the nitrogen cycleare two of the fourteen National Academy of Engineering Grand Challenges that futureengineers will need to act upon. Therefore, treating once-used water on-site to safe effluent-reusestandards—rather than using the water just once and flushing it back to an expensive, high-maintenance centralized treatment plant—has the potential to help address these challenges byrestoring the local water-nutrient cycle.With these considerations, during the spring of 2016 a capstone project at NortheasternUniversity was designed to task civil and environmental engineering students to providesolutions to those Engineering Grand
Conference Session
Environmental Engineering Division: Sustainability and Hands-On Engineering Education
Collection
2016 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Michael A. Butkus, U.S. Military Academy; Jeffrey A. Starke, U.S. Military Academy; Phil Dacunto P.E., U.S. Military Academy; Kimberly Quell
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
softwareand 3D printing have been used by students to create 3D visual aids or scale models ofenvironmental engineering projects in a one semester capstone design course. Obstacles specificto environmental engineering, including scale of the design and selection of engineering graphicssoftware packages are discussed. Assessment of 3D printing in our capstone design course isevaluated.Background3D printers allow electronic source files to be converted into three dimensional objects. Most 3Dprinters convert stereolithography files (stl files) into objects by forming layers of plastic fromthe bottom to the top, which is known as additive manufacturing.2 Until recently, 3D printingwas used primarily by engineers for rapid prototyping. According to
Conference Session
Environmental Engineering Division Technical Session 3
Collection
2017 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Pablo K. Cornejo, California State University, Chico
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
performed well in the class (average = 84%, standard deviation = 7%) andon the final group project report (average = 90%, standard deviation = 4%). Future versions ofthis course could be improved by introducing LCA software earlier in the curriculum andintegrating this course as a pre-requisite or co-requisite to a senior capstone. By teachingstudents an innovative approach to the conventional evaluation-of-alternatives, students wereable to propose designs that minimize environmental impacts (e.g., carbon footprint) and provideeconomically feasible solutions simultaneously. Consequently, this paper highlights a viableteaching model for other universities integrate sustainability into their curriculum.IntroductionCoastal regions in the United
Conference Session
Sustainability and Hands-on Engineering Education
Collection
2015 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Rachel A Brennan P.E., Pennsylvania State University, University Park
Tagged Topics
Diversity
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
experience than a typical classroom 0.00 0.00 5.00 50.00 45.00activity.The topic of the project encouraged me to contribute to my team’s design. 0.00 0.00 19.05 42.86 38.10I would recommend that the design project be used in a senior-level capstone 0.00 0.00 19.05 42.86 38.10course.I wish I had more time to work on the design project. 0.00 0.00 33.33 33.33 14.29I would have preferred to have typical homework in this course, rather than an 28.57 52.38 19.05 0.00 0.00applied design project.The real-world application of the design project inspired me to learn more than if