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Displaying results 121 - 150 of 174 in total
Conference Session
Environmental Engineering Curricula I
Collection
2007 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Xiaoqi Zhang, University of Massachusetts-Lowell; Clifford Bruell, University of Massachusetts-Lowell; Yexin Yin, University of Massachusetts Lowell; Praveen Jayaradu, University of Massachusetts Lowell; Mark Hines, University of Massachusetts Lowell
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
in the bubble that best reflects your opinion. Strongly Neither Agree Strongly Disagree Disagree nor Disagree Agree AgreeI have a better understanding of nanotechnology aftercompleting this course.I would like to experience additional nanotechnologymodules in other courses.My interest in science (and/or engineering) hasincreased as a result of this course.I will enroll in other courses that have nanotechnologymodules in them. Please answer the following questions. If you need additional space, please use the back of this survey.1. What did you like about this module?2. What was most
Conference Session
Environmental Engineering Curricula III
Collection
2007 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Michelle Jarvie, Michigan Technological University; Kurt Paterson, Michigan Technological University
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
DominionUniversity found increased retention of students within the college, and more studentstransferred from engineering to engineering technology12. It is possible that students that maynormally be averse to the traditionally reflective math and science course work of engineering,may be attracted to the more active and applied classes offered in engineering technology. If theloss of these students was due to the desire for more experiential learning, the implementation ofthese techniques within engineering classes could increase retention.Another introduction to engineering course at the University of Virginia focused on teaching Page 12.1073.8engineering
Conference Session
Techniques to Enhance Environmental Engineering Courses
Collection
2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Isaac W. Wait, Marshall University; Richard F. McCormick, Marshall University; Sydney M. Wait, Marshall University
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
oxygen (periods of anoxic conditions followed by aerobic conditions)  Starting pH of the mixture  Ratio of food-to-microorganisms (F:M ratio)  Mixing  Milkfat content  Presence of inhibitory substances (e.g., metals) Page 22.1623.6After determining independent variables, students identified the following parameters (dependentvariables) as possible indicators of process performance:  Dissolved oxygen concentration  pH of the mixture over time  Viscosity of the end-product  Degree of whey / water separation  Amount of carbonation  Specific gravity of the end-product (reflective of alcohol
Conference Session
Enhancing Environmental Engineering Education
Collection
2010 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
William Roper, George Mason University
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
controls.ConclusionsThe opportunity to participate in a real world project and contribute to the data analysis was verywell received by the students. It also gave them an appreciation for the constraints thatstormwater management projects can have from a governmental budget standpoint. Over all theproject objective for the course (to give students experience is using real project data to assessimpervious surface challenges for a flood control project and to provide insights for low impactwater management options) was met and was reflected in very high class evaluation ratings inthis area at the completion of the course. This project also presented the students with thechallenges that local governments often must address between longer term better
Conference Session
Sustainability in Engineering Curricula
Collection
2010 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Stephen Hoffmann, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Inez Hua, Purdue University; Ernest Blatchley, Purdue University; Loring Nies, Purdue University
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
own include sustainability in their curricula.” “I am confident that I can identify effective ways to 3.7 4.0 include environmental sustainability concepts into the courses that I teach.” Participants were asked to rate their level of agreement with the statement on a scale of 1-5: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree Statistical method notes: Data listed in the table reflect results from 14 participants with paired before and after responses. Significant differences between before and after responses for the first four questions were observed using a paired t-test at the 95% confidence level
Conference Session
Integrating Sustainability Across the Curriculum
Collection
2012 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Qiong Zhang, University of South Florida; Linda Vanasupa, California Polytechnic State University; James R. Mihelcic, University of South Florida; Julie Beth Zimmerman, Yale University; Simona Platukyte, University of South Florida
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
the NationalScience Foundation (NSF) being the major granting institution1. The increasing sustainabilitytrend is also reflected in the increase in papers presented at the American Society forEngineering Education (ASEE) related to sustainability education3. The need for sustainabilityeducation drives the strategic faculty cluster hiring in the area of sustainability science andengineering as advertised in the Chronicle of Higher Education. The importance of sustainabilityin education has been recognized by policy makers worldwide and the period between 2005 and2014 has been declared the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development by
Conference Session
Interdisciplinary Experiences and Assessment in Environmental Engineering
Collection
2012 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Elizabeth Butler, University of Oklahoma
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
Disagree Strongly disagree Figure 5. Please choose the best response to the following statements.and engineers can affect the quality of life around the globe” (Figure 5d, Appendix question 5d).This is because most students (93%) chose “strongly agree” or “agree” in response to thisquestion both before and after the module on sustainable engineering, indicating a priorappreciation of the role of scientists and engineers in improving the quality of life around theglobe, as called for by ASCE BOK Outcome 102. This may reflect, in part, students’ motivationsfor choosing civil and environmental engineering and environmental science as career paths
Conference Session
Hands-on Laboratory and Design Experiences in Environmental Engineering
Collection
2012 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Sandeep Sathyamoorthy, Tufts University; Linda Jarvin, Paris College of Art; Michael Hollis, U.S. Air Force Academy; John Anthony Christ, U.S. Air Force Academy; C. Andrew Ramsburg, Tufts University
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
aspect of theactivity, so additional, perhaps longitudinal, research is needed to quantify the benefits of PBLboth within the classroom and laboratory environments. Overall the observational, anecdotal,and instrumental data in our study support more widespread evaluation of PBL and otherconstructive pedagogical techniques in environmental engineering curricula.AcknowledgementsPartial support was provided by the National Science Foundation under Grant CMMI 1000714.Additional support was received from Teagle Foundation in the form of a grant toMr. Sathyamoorthy. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed inthis material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the NationalScience Foundation or
Conference Session
Environmental Engineering Division Technical Session 1
Collection
2018 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Fethiye Ozis P.E., Northern Arizona University; Sahar Razavi, Northern Arizona University; Nihal Sarikaya, Northern Arizona University
Tagged Topics
Diversity
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
results to thestatewide symposium in April, showed that her confidence and her delivery has much improved.Her self-reported “Skill in science writing” increased from 2 to 3.5; this is an area that we will beable to analyze after she concludes her research and starts creating the poster. Finally, sheexpressed her resilience to the challenges as reflected in the stable score of 4 for “Clarification ofcareer path.” She still intends to obtain a doctorate degree.Melissa has completed her analysis of Cadmium removal with corn as a bio-sorbent. As a resultof her experiments, she concluded that corn is an effective bio-sorbent for higher concentrationsof Cadmium levels, 25 - 80 µg/L, with removal efficiencies of 46% -51%, respectively.To date, she has
Conference Session
Environmental Engineering Division Technical Session 1
Collection
2019 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Kyle R. Murray, United States Military Academy; Benjamin Michael Wallen P.E., United States Military Academy; Luke Plante, United States Military Academy; Kimberly Quell, United States Military Academy; Michael A. Butkus, United States Military Academy
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
experiential learning portion of the fermentationfundamentals previously learned in a classroom lecture. Furthermore, these key discussions mayhelp some students stay fully engaged in the laboratory and gain greater understanding than theyotherwise would sitting and waiting for the wort boil to finish.Periods of downtime during this laboratory are also crucial for individual and group reflection onthe overall fermentation process and how this exercise links to their chosen profession asenvironmental engineers. Students from each group are encouraged to communicate with theother student groups and observe and inquire regarding some of the differences across the varietyof beer flavors and types being brewed, giving them a better appreciation for the
Conference Session
Environmental Engineering Division Technical Session 1: Intercultural Competency-infused Teaching
Collection
2021 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access
Authors
Inez Hua, Purdue University, West Lafayette
Tagged Topics
Diversity
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
competency. 9Fig. 2: Comparison of IDI scores pre- and post- program. Eleven students showed an increasingtrend and seven students showed a decrease.Conclusions The Sustainability Across Sectors – Sweden program impacted students’ short- and long-term academic and professional paths. The summative teaching evaluation scores reflect thatstudents gained new cultural perspectives and that the program integrated Swedish culture intothe curriculum. Students also recognized the program in the larger context of their engineeringmajor at Purdue University. The short-term benefits continued and evolved to shape studentschoices regarding graduate school, thesis research topics, additional intercultural
Conference Session
Environmental Division Technical Session 4
Collection
2019 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Natasha Andrade, University of Maryland, College Park
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
Dyrenfurth [3]provide a very good review of the terms that are used in scientific literature, which include,among others, nonscientific beliefs, alternative frameworks, p-prims. Though vocabulary maychange, misconceptions (term chosen for this paper) are how people make sense of the worldeven though it does not reflect established scientific knowledge held by experts. Misconceptionsmay also be incorrect categorizations, particularly if one understands concepts as organizingknowledge in categories [7]. In general, misconceptions may arise due to incorrect instruction,but they may also be constructed by everyday interactions and language barriers. It is importantto note here that there is a line of research that understands misconceptions as novice
Conference Session
Sustainability and Engineering Programs
Collection
2008 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Qiong Zhang, Michigan Technological University; Julie Zimmerman, Yale University; James Mihelcic, Michigan Technological University; Linda Vanasupa, California Polytechnic State University
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
active learningGetting Experience Reflective Dialogueinformation &ideas‚ lectures ‚ take apart of common household ‚ students and faculty‚ textbooks products to identify and sort material collectively make decisions on‚ seminars from types course structure and rules guest speakers ‚ convert energy ‚ end of class discussions on the‚ collaborative ‚ use softwares (e.g., SimaPro, EIO- course materials and learning websites LCA) to perform life cycle analysis problems ‚ case-studies ‚ 1-minute tests ‚ role play
Conference Session
Innovations to Curriculum and Program
Collection
2008 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Ralph Ocon, Purdue University; Opal McFarlane, Hadady Corporation
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
TestBefore discussing environmental concerns and to assess learning, students were given a pretestbefore beginning the topic and posttest after discussing the case studies. The questions asked onboth test were the same and reflect a sample of the various creative thinking and environmentalissues covered in the case study discussions. Table 4 lists the results from last semester’senvironmental pretest and posttest, and Table 5 lists selected questions asked on the pretest andposttest. Incidentally, the results from last semester’s pretest and posttest were consistent withthose of previous semesters.Table 4: Results from the environmental pretest and posttest for OLS 350 (Fall 2007)Pretest: Posttest:Number of
Conference Session
Innovations to Curriculum and Program
Collection
2008 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Angela Bielefeldt, University of Colorado at Boulder
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
: Engineering for 13 13 7 EDC 14 15 EDC Developing Communities 23 uncertain 48 uncertain (EDC), sustainability, etc.The final assignment in 2006 and 2007 (HW6) required students to write a reflective essay onEVEN. The students were asked to indicate if they were interested in earning a degree in EVEN,and the sub-topic of greatest interest. The percent of the students stating an interest in varioussub-discipline areas is shown in Table 4. In 2006, 21% of the students stated that they wereunlikely to select EVEN as their major. Of those interested in EVEN, results indicated asignificant shift in stated areas compared to homework 1, although almost half were simplyuncertain
Conference Session
Innovations to Curriculum and Program
Collection
2008 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Angela Bielefeldt, University of Colorado at Boulder
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
important to recognize cultural differences. Future studies will expand on thiswork by surveying more students and try to combine the quantitative responses to these surveyswith qualitative information that reflects cultural competency.AcknowledgmentsThe authors recognize Marie L. Miville for providing the MGUDS-S survey and scoring guide.This material is partially based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation underDepartment Level Reform Planning Grant No. 0431947. This material is also based on worksupported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. ESI-0227558, which funds the Page 13.345.11Center for the Advancement of
Conference Session
Project-Based Service Learning
Collection
2009 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Chris Swan, Tufts University; Mary McCormick, Tufts University
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
(16), Vygotsky (21, 22),Kohlberg (13), and Kolb (12).The benefits of PBSL are derived from its pedagogical basis. When properly performed, PBSL Page 14.150.3creates a problem-centered, educational environment that gives rise to cognitive processes;combinations of thought and action, reflection and internalization, experience and development.Active team engagement in PBSL projects provides opportunities for knowledge seeking,problem-solving, and collaborating to attain a common goal. While benefits of PBSL are widelyrecognized by universities across the nation, robust validation and corroboration of this claim arepresently lacking (4). The
Conference Session
Service Learning Projects in Developing Countries
Collection
2009 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Maya Trotz, University of South Florida; Amy Stuart, University of South Florida; Daniel Yeh, University of South Florida; Helen Muga, University of South Florida; Linda Phillips, University of South Florida; James Mihelcic, University of South Florida
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
it integrated into undergraduate curriculum, longer times incountry, and the provision of similar type projects for Bolivian students in the US.The graduate student feedback implied that students 1) learned how to mentorundergraduate students in research projects, 2) better understood how to partner withscientists and engineers located outside the U.S. after participating in the program,and 3) saw how to integrate international experience into graduate level research afterparticipating in the program. Some reflections of the influence of the researchexperience on their professional goals after graduation are:“Before participating in this project, it was hard to imagine how this kind of researchcould be organized and conducted, given
Conference Session
Capstone Courses II
Collection
2006 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
C. Stewart Slater, Rowan University; Mariano Savelski, Rowan University; Robert Hesketh, Rowan University
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
that solvent used in the process.A weighted index was established to measure which solvent would be more applicable for a Page 11.671.6particular process. Each metric was scaled and summed to generate an overall index dependentupon amount of solvent used in the process. To accomplish this, each parameter was normalizedfrom 0-1 so that the lower numbers reflect greener material for a given category. These valueswere then summed by a weighting factor to stress the category of greatest concern. Toaccomplish this, each category (i.e. Ingestion toxicity, biodegradation, aquatic toxicity, etc.) wasinitially weighed on a log scale with a log base
Conference Session
Sustainable Engineering
Collection
2006 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Angela Bielefeldt, University of Colorado-Boulder
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
higher self-reported improvement in the ability to work on multi-disciplinary teams and understanding ofprofessional and ethical responsibility. The students who worked on the EWB independent studyprojects reported less gain in the “ability to design and conduct experiments”, with the exceptionof the student with who also wrote funding proposals and conducted significant laboratoryexperiments. Other responses, such as presentation skills, reflected differences in the specificexpectations of the experience (REU students were required to give an oral presentation at theend of the summer; independent study students generally write a final report but do not orallypresent their research findings).Table 4. ABET outcomes of the undergraduate student
Conference Session
Sustainable Engineering
Collection
2006 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Eric Beckman, University of Pittsburgh; Gena Kovalcik, University of Pittsburgh; Mary Besterfield-Sacre, University of Pittsburgh; Robert Ries, University of Pittsburgh; Kim Needy, University of Pittsburgh; Laura Schaefer, University of Pittsburgh; Larry Shuman, University of Pittsburgh
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
engineering has always been innovation, especially in the design of newproducts and processes that are optimized to reflect performance and price ideals. Althoughengineering designers have focused on performance and price criteria for over a century, thegrowing recognition that the world’s resources are finite while its population continues toincrease have led to a new criterion – sustainability – that now must be incorporated into thedesign process often as an objective, but always as a constraint.1 Mihelcic, et al2 have definedsustainability as “the design of human and industrial systems to ensure that mankind’s use ofnatural resources and cycles do not lead to diminished quality of life due either to losses in futureeconomic opportunities or to
Conference Session
Environmental Engineering Division Technical Session 3
Collection
2017 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Shannon L. Isovitsch Parks P.E., University of Pittsburgh, Johnstown; Laura J. Dietz, University of Pittsburgh, Johnstown
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
Description portion of the report shall be continuously numbered. • Color diagrams, graphics, plots, and photographs may be included that reflect the unique features of the project. Each is to be identified with an appropriate descriptive caption. Graphics/photos included within the project description will count toward the 20-page limit. 7. Supporting Documentation – If needed, provide drawings, calculations, tables, vendor submittals, detailed cost estimates, and other voluminous documents, as appendices. 8. References/Acknowledgements – All references and resources used for this project shall be cited.Teams shall develop their materials such that their complete analysis and design solution maybe understood
Conference Session
Environmental Engineering Division Technical Session 3
Collection
2017 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Annalisa Onnis-Hayden , Northeastern University; Carolina Beatriz Venegas-Martinez, Northeastern University; Marissa P. Dreyer, Northeastern University
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
school and a single definition or format that applies to all programs does not exist [1];however, a comprehensive culminating design experience is usually provided in a capstoneprogram. For Durel (1993) “a capstone course should be a synthesis, reflection and integration,and a bridge or a real-world preparatory experience that focuses on the post-graduation future”[2]. Dutson et al. (1997) [3] reviewed more than 100 papers describing capstone experiences inengineering education, presenting differences and similarities among institution and amongdifferent engineering departments. Capstone projects in civil engineering usually involvedetailed analysis and design; however, the construction of prototypes with testing and analysis isnot a common
Conference Session
Environmental Engineering Division Technical Session 3
Collection
2019 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Fethiye Ozis P.E., Northern Arizona University; Nihal Sarikaya, Northern Arizona University; Adam Bringhurst
Tagged Topics
Diversity
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
to learn more about ground level air quality 4.32 ±0.77 This demo activity was a good use of class time 4.71 ±0.57 I benefited from this demo activity 4.57 ±0.66The remaining two questions asked students their perspective on the impact and quality of thedemonstration. Students provided ranked responses, No Impact (1) to High Impact (5), to thequestion on “What impact has this activity had on your understanding of inversion in theatmosphere,” resulting with an average and standard deviation of 4.23±0.75. Six of the 31 studentsdid respond “Neutral (3)” for this question, reflecting that they were not influenced in eitherdirection. For the
Conference Session
Environmental Engineering Division Technical Session 3
Collection
2019 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Michelle K. Marincel Payne, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
required for reproducible measurements,some students expressed frustration about the amount physical labor required to collect enoughwater to pump through the wetland, as well as the time required to measure water quality tests intriplicate on top of operating a wetland with a six to twelve hour retention time. The students whowere working solo on the project wished that they had a teammate to help with the physical laborand/or the measuring of the many water samples. They also reflected that a teammate would havebeen helpful when making decisions by acting as a sounding board. Students also wished for moredocumentation on procedures and practices.The summer students suggested that the extra programs such as journal club or university
Conference Session
Environmental Division Technical Session 4
Collection
2019 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Jalal Rastegary, New Mexico State University; Patricia A. Sullivan, New Mexico State University; Christopher Campbell, New Mexico State University, Engineering New Mexico Resource Network
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
the EPA pollutionprevention website [6].The delivery of P2 and E3 engineering extension services has made adoption of manyoperational aspects of the program achievable for businesses of varied size. These programs helpincrease awareness of the local environment and help businesses understand how running a moreenvironmentally sustainable business can save them money. Through the programs offered byENMRN, businesses have become more open to adopting other Best Practices (e.g. Lean), andalso serve as strong referral to their peers, reflecting the grassroots impact these programs canhave on the environment.P2 and E3 programENMRN is focused on assisting small and medium-sized businesses to adopt operationalprocesses that are both economical and
Conference Session
Inventive Opportunities for Research and Exposure
Collection
2020 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access
Authors
Pamela McLeod, ReNUWIt at Stanford University; Junko Munakata Marr, Colorado School of Mines; Richard G. Luthy, Stanford University
Tagged Topics
Diversity
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
. A few others plan to start graduate school in Fall 2020. Of the 48 who went on topursue graduate degrees in water science and engineering, 34 (71%) were female and 18 (38%)were URM. No statistical differences in the likelihood to attend graduate school were observedbased on gender or race/ethnicity. Our legacy assessment will further characterize the educationand career trajectories of our program alumni, as well as their retrospective reflections regardingthe impact participating in our program had on their education and career choices.Alumni tracking for the three comparison environmental engineering REU Programs found thatover 60% of participants of the Clarkson REU attended graduate or professional school [9],approximately 60% of the CU
Conference Session
Enviromental Engineering Division Poster Session
Collection
2015 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Michelle Marincel Payne, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology; Michael Robinson P.E., Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology; Jennifer Mueller PE P.E., Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
the master’s program. The summer practicum is acknowledged as a course,where students are required to submit routine deliverables that address professional and businessskills through reflection on the student’s work experience or discussion with a supervisingengineer on his/her work experience.MethodsAs we develop a Master in Environmental Engineering program, we surveyed existing master’sprograms to determine what coursework is typically included in course-based as well astraditional environmental engineering master’s degree programs. This survey provided insightinto the collection of courses expected for an environmental engineering master’s degree. Foradditional insight, we surveyed our board of advisors, composed primarily of practicing
Conference Session
Sustainable Engineering
Collection
2007 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Eric Beckman, University of Pittsburgh; Mary Besterfield-Sacre, University of Pittsburgh; Gena Kovalcik, University of Pittsburgh; Matthew Mehalik, University of Pittsburgh; Robert Ries, University of Pittsburgh; Kim Needy, University of Pittsburgh; Laura Schaefer, University of Pittsburgh; Larry Shuman, University of Pittsburgh
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
progress at the end of the first yearwith respect to research and pedagogy with a special emphasis on describing the new coursedevelopment.1. IntroductionThe hallmark of US engineering has always been innovation, especially in the design of newproducts and processes that are optimized to reflect performance and price ideals. Althoughengineering designers have focused on performance and price criteria for over a century, the Page 12.371.2growing recognition that the world’s resources are finite while its population continues toincrease have led to a new criterion – sustainability – that now must be incorporated into thedesign process often as an
Conference Session
Sustainability and Hands-on Engineering Education
Collection
2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Andrew Ross Pfluger P.E., U.S. Military Academy; Philip J. Dacunto, Department of Geography and Environmental Engineering, United States Military Academy; Michael Hendricks, United States Military Academy
Tagged Divisions
Environmental Engineering
many random, turbulent eddies. These random fluctuations willdisperse the pollutant away from the plume centerline, resulting in a normal or Gaussiandistribution of concentrations in both the vertical (z) and crosswind (y) directions. Assuming aconstant wind in the x direction, a non-reacting pollutant, and total reflection from the ground,the concentration of pollutants downwind at any point x, y, and z can be predicted with thefollowing equation:4 Q  y2    z  H 2    z  H 2  C exp   exp     exp    2u y z  2 2   2 z2   2 z2