Conference Session

Innovative Courses/Pedagogies in Liberal Education II

Collection

2010 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Katherine Wikoff, Milwaukee School of Engineering

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

AC 2010-1688: TEACHING TO ABET'S CRITERION 3(I) LIFELONG LEARNINGOUTCOME: LESSONS ON INNOVATION FROM CREATIVE COMMUNITIESKatherine Wikoff, Milwaukee School of Engineering KATHERINE WIKOFF is Associate Professor in the General Studies Department at Milwaukee School of Engineering, where she teaches courses in freshman communication, business and technical communication, literature, political science, film studies, and creative thinking. Email: wikoff@msoe.edu Page 15.1189.1© American Society for Engineering Education, 2010 Teaching to ABET’s 3(i) Lifelong Learning Outcome

Conference Session

Multidisciplinary and Liberal Education

Collection

2007 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Robert Martello, Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering; Jonathan Stolk, Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

AC 2007-787: PAUL REVERE IN THE SCIENCE LAB: INTEGRATINGHUMANITIES AND ENGINEERING PEDAGOGIES TO DEVELOP SKILLS INCONTEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING AND SELF-DIRECTED LEARNINGRobert Martello, Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering Robert Martello is an Associate Professor of the History of Science and Technology at the Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering.Jonathan Stolk, Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering Jonathan Stolk is an Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science at the Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering. Page 12.1147.1© American Society for Engineering Education, 2007

Conference Session

Liberal Education Division Poster Session

Collection

2007 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Tom Moran, Rochester Institute of Technology

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

post 60’s educational world, it is in vogue to pass over the fundamentals andlaunch students at a very early age into the holistic writing process. The idea is the fundamentalsof how to write a sentence will be absorbed by little insights and little on-demand discussionswith teachers about nouns and verbs and at some point in time the light will go on and everythingwill come together,” Henderson explains. “Well, sadly that rarely happens. It is particularlybothersome to the engineering mind, because the engineering mind knows that process just isn’tgoing to work. At the very get go. So the engineering mind is desperately wanting somebody tosit down and share the fundamentals first. The other thing the engineering mind craves iswhenever

Conference Session

Critical Thinking and Creative Arts

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Helen Donis-Keller, Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

students in mind. Thecombination of media serves at least two functions. It emphasizes the development of an ideafollowed by selection of the most appropriate means to realize the idea (from at least four formsof media). It also provides an introduction to the use of several types of media in a single classrather than requiring that a student take three or four introductory classes, something that maynot be possible in the undergraduate engineering curriculum. Students also learn, by studyingwork of professional contemporary artists, the components of professional practice in thesefields, and it is expected that students will come to realize that art has an important place ineducation and for life in contemporary society. The course differs from

Conference Session

Philosophy of Engineering Education: Epistemology and Ethics

Collection

2008 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

John Heywood, Trinity College-Dublin

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

curriculumauthorities state the attitudes and dispositions that should be promoted by study in a particularengineering course.17 More recently discussion has focused on the moral purpose of theoutcomes of studies in particular areas of engineering, as for example the impact of design onthe environment or genetic engineering.18 There is not however much debate about the moregeneral effect of beliefs and attitudes on a student’s general philosophical disposition or habitof mind.19Finally in this context Grimson showed how a philosophical viewpoint derived from formalphilosophy and philosophies could contribute to design. He used the example of the design ofone of Britains most famous nineteenth century buildings – The Crystal Palace20. Hecharacterised

Conference Session

Liberal Education Division Poster Session

Collection

2007 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Joanne Lax, Purdue University

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

AC 2007-2658: HELPING ENGINEERING STUDENTS WRITE EFFECTIVEEMAILJoanne Lax, Purdue University Ms. Lax is the communications specialist for the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Purdue University in West Lafayette, IN. She is a graduate of Northwestern University (B.S.J., 1977; M.S.J., 1978) and Purdue University (M.A. 1994). She teaches graduate courses in academic writing and speaking for international engineering students. Page 12.800.1© American Society for Engineering Education, 2007 Helping Engineering Students Write Effective EmailAbstractWith the widespread availability of text

Conference Session

Tree-huggers, Diggers, and Queers--Oh my!

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

George Catalano, State University of New York, Binghamton; Caroline Baillie, Queens University, Kingston

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

AC 2009-1326: ENGINEERING AND NEW FRAMES OF REFERENCEGeorge Catalano, State University of New York, BinghamtonCaroline Baillie, Queens University, Kingston Page 14.542.1© American Society for Engineering Education, 2009 Engineering and New Frames of ReferenceI. IntroductionEngineers make choices in nearly all aspects of their work. As we move farther into the 21stcentury, engineers will become more directly involved in issues of conflict, developmentand environmental sustainability. The present work confronts those issues head on andoffers a variety of frames of reference for decision making including traditional approachesused in engineering throughout the

Conference Session

Redefining the Boundaries of Engineering and Liberal Education: Contributions to the Year of Dialogue

Collection

2007 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

William Grimson, Dublin Institute of Technology

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

which therefore eliminated metaphysical and other more speculative questions as being logically ill- foundedIdealism What we perceive as the external world is in some way Not held to be relevant by most an artifice of the mind. engineers it is conjectured! Existentialism considers that action, freedom and Increasingly importantExistentialism decision as fundamental to human existence. perspective for Engineering to Underlying themes and characteristics, such as anxiety, take into account the Human dread, freedom. To a large extent

Conference Session

Communication - Needs and Methods

Collection

2010 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Christine Nicometo, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Kevin Anderson, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Traci Nathans-Kelly, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Sandra Courter, University of Wisconsin-Madison; Thomas McGlamery, University of Wisconsin-Madison

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

they are trying to do. When a Page 15.1391.8 person first comes to you and says what they want, [it] may not actually be the solution that they need. It is really up to us to try to understand what you are trying to achieve and then have an open mind to consider the possible options. That’s one that I think is a big oneFor most engineers in our study, meeting with clients or colleagues and trying to determine theirneeds was a challenging and satisfying part of their work lives, as this engineer’s experienceillustrates: I like meeting with the clients and hearing what they have to say and either agreeing with

Conference Session

Normative Commitments and Public Engagement in Engineering

Collection

2010 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Juan Lucena, Colorado School of Mines; Jen Schneider, Colorado School of Mines; Jon Leydens, Colorado School of Mines

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

perspectives ondevelopment, helping, community, and the need to listen. Those interactions catalyzed severalquestions: What kind of curricular journey can help students to change their beliefs and attitudestowards development? How could engineering students learn to position and assess their ownknowledge and question their desires to help, while finding value in building relationships andlearning from local knowledges? With these questions in mind we set out to develop and Page 15.475.11implement a course entitled Engineering and Sustainable Community Development. After oneyear of research and preparation, a team of faculty from the liberal arts

Conference Session

Liberal Education for 21st Century Engineering

Collection

2010 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Nadia Kellam, University of Georgia; Joachim Walther, University of Georgia; Tracie Costantino, University of Georgia; Bonnie Cramond, University of Georgia

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

AC 2010-1747: INTEGRATING THE ENGINEERING CURRICULUM THROUGHCROSSDISCIPLINARY STUDIOSNadia Kellam, University of Georgia Nadia Kellam is an Assistant Professor and engineering educational researcher in the Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering at the University of Georgia. She is co-director of the Collaborative Lounge for Understanding Society and Technology through Educational Research (CLUSTER) research group. Her research interests include interdisciplinarity, creativity, identity formation, and the role of emotion in cognition.Joachim Walther, University of Georgia Joachim Walther is an Assistant Professor with the Faculty of Engineering at the University of Georgia

Conference Session

Learning to Communicate with Engineers and Non-Engineers

Collection

2008 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Mieke Schuurman, Pennsylvania State University; Michael Alley, Pennsylvania State University; Melissa Marshall, Pennsylvania State University; Christopher Johnstone, Pennsylvania State University

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

AC 2008-270: THE EFFECT OF A TARGETED SPEECH COMMUNICATIONCOURSE ON THE PUBLIC SPEAKING SELF-EFFICACY OF ENGINEERINGUNDERGRADUATESMieke Schuurman, Pennsylvania State University Mieke Schuurman is an engineering education research associate with the Leonhard Center for the Enhancement of Engineering Education in the College of Engineering at The Pennsylvania State University. She received her Masters and PhD in Social & Organizational Psychology from the University of Groningen (The Netherlands). Her work focuses on the enhancement of engineering education. She is a member of ASEE and WEPAN, and actively involved in ASEE's Cooperative Education Division as their Research Chair. She has presented

Conference Session

Engineering for Social Justice

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

George Catalano, State University of New York-Binghamton; Caroline Baillie, Queens University-Kingston

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

climate or deplete so many of the Earth’s resources insuch a short period of time?As we move forward into the 21st century, and as we tick off the gadgets of technologicalwizardry, which pervades our world, it seems obvious that the development of therational, analytical or logical part of the human brain has far outpaced the portion of thebrain that would ensure that these countless new discoveries would serve us, not destroyus. That portion of the human brain has lagged behind catastrophically. Our call herethough must not be misinterpreted as a call to abandon rationality but rather a hope thatwithin the context of a new engineering paradigm, reason and compassion can worktogether to integrate mind, body, and heart. We know that society cannot

Conference Session

Venturing Out: Service Learning, Study Abroad, and Criterion H

Collection

2008 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

John Duffy, University of Massachusetts Lowell; Carol Barry, University Massachusetts Lowell; Linda Barrington, University of Massachusetts-Lowell; David Kazmer, University of Massachusetts-Lowell; William Moeller, University of Massachusetts Lowell; Cheryl West, University of Massachusetts Lowell

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

their courses as part of thisprogram.References1. Jacoby, B., & Assoc. (1996). Service learning in higher education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.2. Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology [ABET] (2007). Criteria for accrediting engineering programs – Effective for evaluations during the 2008-2009 accreditation cycle. Retrieved February 27, 2008, from http://www.abet.org3. Brandenberger, J.W. (1998). Developmental psychology and service-learning: A theoretical framework. In R. Bringle & D. Duffy (Eds.), With service in mind: Concepts and models for service-learning in psychology (p. 68). Washington, DC: American Association of Higher Education.4. Astin, A., Vogelgesang, L., Ikeda, E., & Yee

Conference Session

Liberal Education for 21st Century Engineering

Collection

2010 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

John Heywood, Trinity College Dublin

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

wide-ranginginterests outside of formal education. But taken together were they liberally educated? 19What is clear is that the provision of additional subjects whether “tool” or “fringe” is noguarantee of liberal education unless instruction and content are designed with the goalsof liberal education in mind. If those goals are taken from such authorities as Arnold,Newman and Pattison then that means that there is a “cultivation of the intellect”, and afocus on the person rather than engineering. The value to engineering follows: it is not aliberal education if it does not create the space for reflective thought through which aperson can construct and reconstruct their identity. Inherent in Williams’s view thatengineering has lost its

Conference Session

Beyond Individual Ethics: Engineering in Context

Collection

2008 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Arthur Sacks, Colorado School of Mines

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

AC 2008-796: CHINATOWN: INTEGRATING FILM, CULTURE, ANDENVIRONMENT IN ENGINEERING EDUCATIONArthur Sacks, Colorado School of Mines Page 13.292.1© American Society for Engineering Education, 2008 Chinatown: Integrating Film, Culture, and Environment in Engineering EducationIntroductionChinatown, a commercial film produced in 1974 by Robert Evans, directed by Roman Polanskiand based upon the academy award-winning film original screenplay by Robert Towne1, is aprime example of a film that may be studied and used in the liberal arts curriculum withinengineering education to convey the complexity of the human condition and the human contextof

Conference Session

Philosophy of Engineering Education: Epistemology and Ethics

Collection

2008 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Gayle Ermer, Calvin College

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

engineers, who limit their concept of technology to particularcontemporary objects or physical systems. Carl Mitcham, in his book Thinking Through 2Technology, observes that one commonality among the definitions of technology prevalentamong those who consider technology from a philosophical perspective is that in every case“technology is pivotally engaged with the human.” He goes on to assert that “as such it is to beconsidered in relation to the essential aspects of a philosophical anthropology – with differencesdrawn between its manifestations in the mind, through bodily activities, and as independentobjects that take their place in the physical and

Conference Session

Normative Commitments and Public Engagement in Engineering

Collection

2010 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Gary Downey, Virginia Tech

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

was not TV. This was real. I felt grateful for when and where I was born. I have only known freedom, never known hunger, and always slept in a clean bed. But that was too often overshadowed by the realization of my remaining obligation to others less fortunate, especially the children of this world. Moreover, these years at Bell further solidified in my mind the importance of gaining an international perspective for the field of engineering. . . . It was then I experienced a real awareness that the science and engineering workforce needed to be regarded as more than a national resource. I now emphatically feel that global issues can only be solved by using global intellectual resources, and that the interdependency of

Conference Session

Engineering for Social Justice

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Steven VanderLeest, Calvin College

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

2006-85: JUSTICE AND HUMILITY IN TECHNOLOGY DESIGNSteven VanderLeest, Calvin College Steven H. VanderLeest is a Professor of Engineering at Calvin College. He has an M.S.E.E. from Michigan Tech. U. (1992) and Ph.D. from the U of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (1995). He received a “Who’s Who Among America’s Teachers” Award in 2004 and 2005 and was director of a FIPSE grant “Building IT Fluency into a Liberal Arts Core Curriculum.” His research includes responsible technology and software partitioned OS. Page 11.851.1© American Society for Engineering Education, 2006 Justice and

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics: An Interdisciplinary Endeavor

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Edward Gehringer, North Carolina State University

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

AC 2009-1719: PERSONAL VS. PROFESSIONAL E-MAIL: THE PALIN CASEEdward Gehringer, North Carolina State University Ed Gehringer is an associate professor in the Department of Computer Science and the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at North Carolina State University. He has been a frequent presenter at education-based workshops in the areas of computer architecture and object-oriented systems. His research interests include architectural support for memory management, garbage collection, and computer-supported collaborative learning. He received a B.S. from the University of Detroit(-Mercy) in 1972, a B.A. from Wayne State University, also in 1972, and the Ph.D. from Purdue

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics: An Interdisciplinary Endeavor

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Joseph Herkert, Arizona State University Polytechnic; Jameson Wetmore, Arizona State University; Heather Canary, Arizona State University Polytechnic; Karin Ellison, Arizona State University

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

AC 2009-1131: INTEGRATING MICROETHICS AND MACROETHICS INGRADUATE SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING EDUCATION: DEVELOPINGINSTRUCTIONAL MODELSJoseph Herkert, Arizona State University Polytechnic Joseph Herkert, D. Sc., P.E., is Lincoln Associate Professor of Ethics and Technology at Arizona State University. He has taught engineering ethics and related courses for more than twenty years. His work on engineering ethics has appeared in engineering, law, social science, and applied ethics journals. Dr. Herkert is the past Editor of IEEE Technology & Society and a founding Associate Editor of Engineering Studies. He received his BSEE from Southern Methodist University and his doctorate in Engineering and

Conference Session

Recent Developments in Engineering Ethics

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Marilyn Dyrud, Oregon Institute of Technology

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

ineducation, as we prepare the engineers of tomorrow. As game designers Dan Bunten and HeidiAycock explain, “When you become completely absorbed by a game that pushes you to yourintellectual edges, you feel like what you’ve done is more deeply significant than what youwould have done otherwise. Good games are good for you. Fun is a vitamin for the mind,essential nourishment for your intellect.”42References1. Lay, Ken. Enron Interoffice Memo. July 1, 2000. Retrieved from http://www.thesmokinggun.com/enron/ enronethics2.html.2. Tyco. Who We Are. 2004-2005. Retrieved from http://www.tyco.com/livesite/Page/Tyco/Who+We+Are/ Overview/.3. Jurors See Tape of Kozlowski’s Party. October 29, 2003. Retrieved from http

Conference Session

Historical Perspectives for Engineering Education

Collection

2010 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Alice Pawley, Purdue University; Karen Tonso, Wayne State University

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

AC 2010-846: “THE IMAGE OF A WOMAN ENGINEER:” WOMEN’SIDENTITIES AS ENGINEERS AS PORTRAYED BY HISTORICAL NEWSPAPERSAND MAGAZINES, 1930-1970Alice Pawley, Purdue University Alice Pawley is an assistant professor in the School of Engineering Education and an affiliate faculty member in the Women’s Studies Program at Purdue University. Dr. Pawley has a B.Eng. in chemical engineering from McGill University, and an M.S. and Ph.D. in industrial engineering with a Ph.D. minor in women’s studies from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. She is co-PI on Purdue University’s ADVANCE initiative, through which she is incorporating her work on metaphors into better understanding current models of women’s

Conference Session

Historical Perspectives for Engineering Education

Collection

2010 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Amy Slaton, Drexel University; Mary Ebeling, Drexel University

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

AC 2010-936: TWO-YEAR COLLEGES AND THE ALLURE OF "NANO":UNDERSTANDING INSTITUTIONAL ENTHUSIASMSAmy Slaton, Drexel University Amy E. Slaton is an associate professor of history at Drexel University in Philadelphia, and director of Drexel's Master's Program in Science, Technology and Society. She holds a PhD in the History and Sociology of Science from the University of Pennsylvania, and has written on social aspects of standards and instrumentation in American engineering, construction and manufacturing occupations. Her most recent book is _Race, Rigor, and Selectivity in U.S. Engineering: The History of an Occupational Color Line_ (Harvard University Press, 2010).Mary Ebeling, Drexel University

Conference Session

Historical Perspectives for Engineering Education

Collection

2010 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Atsushi Akera, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

AC 2010-724: ENGINEERING 'MANPOWER' SHORTAGES, REGIONALECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT, AND THE 1960 CALIFORNIA MASTER PLANFOR HIGHER EDUCATION: HISTORICAL LESSONS ON ENGINEERINGWORKFORCE DEVELOPMENTAtsushi Akera, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Director, First Year Studies & Associate Professor, Department of Science and Technology Studies. Page 15.474.1© American Society for Engineering Education, 2010 Engineering ‘Manpower’ Shortages, Regional Economic Development, and the 1960 California Master Plan for Higher Education: Historical Lessons on Engineering Workforce

Conference Session

Philosophy of Engineering Education: Epistemology and Ethics

Collection

2008 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Mark Valenzuela, University of Evansville; James Allen, University of Evansville; Brian Swenty, University of Evansville

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

AC 2008-973: LIBERAL EDUCATION: A SURVEY OF GOALSMark Valenzuela, University of Evansville Mark Valenzuela is Associate Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of Evansville. He received both his PhD and MS degrees from Cornell University in the field of structural engineering. He received his BE degree from Vanderbilt University. He is a registered professional engineer in the state of Indiana.James Allen, University of Evansville James Allen is Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of Evansville. He received his PhD from the University of Cincinnati, his MS degree from the University of Oklahoma and his BS degree from the University of Missouri Rolla. He is

Conference Session

Innovative Courses/Pedagogies in Liberal Education I

Collection

2010 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Deborah Sinnreich-Levi, Stevens Institute of Technology; Susan Metz, Stevens Institute of Technology; David Silverstein, Stevens Institute of Technology

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

and clear when writing and creating slides. • Keep audience in mind. Giving an Oral Presentation: • Practice the presentation with some friends prior to the presentation. • Test the PowerPoint on a projector prior to the presentation. • Interact with the audience. • Slow down when speaking. • Explain technical terms. • Focus on different ways to communicate with different audiences. • Avoid note cards. o Know slides well enough to speak from them.In response to the question “Tell us what you would do to improve the WCC Workshop,” therewere a number of interesting responses including: • Give the workshop to freshmen engineering students. • Focus on how to practice giving a

Conference Session

Integrating H&SS in Engineering I

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Donna Riley, Smith College; Lionel Claris, Smith College

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

Carnot’sfascination with steam power led to statements of the second law grounded in heat engines, while Page 11.1003.6subsequent statements by Clausius became more abstract due to a quest for parsimony andelegance. It also supported students’ critical reading of the textbook’s presentation of entropyanalogies, discussed below.AnalysisWe collected a variety of evidence of student engagement with the ideas of Foucault. First, therewas the pre-assessment in which students shared what came to mind when presented with theidea of “power” and “knowledge.” Second, the students completed a reflective essay on theFoucault reading they were assigned. Third, students

Conference Session

Beyond Individual Ethics: Engineering in Context

Collection

2008 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Byron Newberry, Baylor University; William Lawson, Texas Tech University; Kathy Austin, Texas Tech University; Greta Gorsuch, Texas Tech University; Thomas Darwin, University of Texas at Austin

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

, engineering programs in the United States have sought todevelop a larger role for professional ethics education in the curriculum. Accreditationrequirements have helped facilitate this shift. These requirements have themselves beendeveloped to help ensure that engineering graduates have the knowledge and skills—non-technical as well as technical—needed in today’s engineering profession. With this in mind, it isworth noting that almost half of all engineering graduate students in the U.S. are internationalstudents. And about forty percent of these remain in the United States and are employed in somefacet of engineering research and practice. It therefore seems prudent for the profession thatthese students, coming from diverse backgrounds, receive some

Conference Session

Normative Commitments and Public Engagement in Engineering

Collection

2010 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Erin Cech, University of California, San Diego

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education

AC 2010-129: TRAINED TO DISENGAGE? A LONGITUDINAL STUDY OFSOCIAL CONSCIOUSNESS AND PUBLIC ENGAGEMENT AMONGENGINEERING STUDENTSErin Cech, University of California, San Diego Erin Cech’s research examines individual-level, cultural mechanisms that reproduce inequality, especially those pertaining to sex segregation in science and engineering fields. Her dissertation explores the self-expressive edge of inequality, analyzing how gender schemas and self-conceptions influence the career decisions of college students over time. Her other work examines the experiences of lesbian, gay and bisexual engineering students (with Tom Waidzunas), the work devotion of and perceptions of inequality among high