Conference Session

Emerging Trends in Engineering Education Poster Session

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Ahmet Zeytinci, University of the District of Columbia; Philip Brach, University of the District of Columbia

“beats thedrum” for the engineering profession. It was not that long ago that early settlers took months intheir trek westward in covered wagons drawn by horses with people walking most of thedistance, taking three months to traverse the country. But today, at a moment’s notice we can flyfrom east to west in a matter of hours, without giving it any thought. In fact if the computersystem goes down in a store, no one knows what to do; they may even close the store.Today we have a burgeoning economy with fields of technology such as biotechnology andnanotechnology, fundamentally new branches of engineering. Society accepts this as the norm.In fact people get “ticked off” if things don’t work to perfection.So, why do engineers and the engineering

Conference Session

Biology in Engineering

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Paul Schreuders, Utah State University; Brian Rutherford, Utah State University; Katrina Cox, Utah State University; Susan Mannon, Utah State University

Tagged Divisions

Biological & Agricultural

examine how these issues impact biological engineering, undergraduate engineering studentsparticipated in a voluntary survey designed to help understand whether gender differences ex-ist in the interests and attitudes of biological engineering students. Current research supports theidea of promoting engineering by integrating it into existing math, science and technology edu-cation classes 8,9,10. Yet, little has been done to see whether students agree with such tactics and,oqtg"korqtvcpvn{."kh"igpfgt"rnc{u"c"tqng"kp"uwej"qrkpkqpu0"UkipkÝecpv"ejcpigu"dgkpi"ocfg"vq"vjg"structure of biological and agricultural engineering programs throughout the US, coupled withlow female enrollment, and overall student enrollment in college engineering majors

Conference Session

Capstone Courses I

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Matthew Sanders, Kettering University; Mark Thompson, Kettering University; Mohamed El-Sayed, Kettering University; Lucy King, Kettering University; Michael Lindquist, Kettering University

Tagged Divisions

Systems Engineering Constituent Committee

Manufacturing Engineering for 13 years and teaches CIM, Robotics and evening distance learning graduate degree program courses. She had 12 years of prior teaching experience in CAD/CAE/CAM areas at Lawrence Technological University. She is an active member at ASME College and Pre-College committees. She is responsible for collaborative effort to incorporate MfgE courses into ME curriculum.Michael Lindquist, Kettering University Michael Lindquist graduated from Kettering University with a Mechanical Engineering Bachelor's Degree. He is currently doing an assistantship while completing his Masters in Engineering Management. The work he is doing includes a lean, "lights out" manufacturing project

Conference Session

International Exchange/Joint Programs in Engineering

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Jan Helge Bøhn, Virginia Tech; Manfred Hampe, Technische Universitaet Darmstadt

Tagged Divisions

International

semesters. The dates shown reflect the 2005-2006 academic year. Fall Semester (August 22 – December 15) ME 3404 Fluid Mechanics 3 credits (6 CP) ME 4504 Dynamic Systems – Controls Engineering I 3 credits (6 CP) ME 4015 Engineering Design and Project I 3 credits (6 CP) ME 4204 Internal Combustion Engines Tech elective 1 3 credits (6 CP) ME 4554 Advanced Technology Motor Vehicles Tech elective 2 3 credits (6 CP) TOTAL 15

Conference Session

Manufacturing Education Program Innovation

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Daniel Waldorf, Cal Poly State University; Sema Alptekin, Cal Poly State University; Robert Bjurman, General Motors Global Engineering

Tagged Divisions

Manufacturing

hours after Bob received his Bachelor of Science Degree in Mechanical Engineering Technology from California Polytechnical University, he began his career with General Motors in Southern California. Bob had many challenging assignments in the vehicle assembly side of the business on the factory floor in Industrial Engineering, Tooling, Production Supervision and Future Production Planning. His manufacturing expertise lead to assignments in vehicle design bringing real world production concerns and processes into the product engineering activity to design in quality and buildability. Bob’s manufacturing and engineering expertise were also applied during an assignment at Hughes Aircraft on

Conference Session

International Engineering Education II

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Mulchand Rathod, Wayne State University; Mary James Legatski, American Society of Mechanical Engineers

Tagged Divisions

International

2006-89: A PERSPECTIVE ON INITIATIVES IN DIVERSITY AND OUTREACHACTIVITIES OF ASME, AN INTERNATIONAL SOCIETYMulchand Rathod, Wayne State University Mulchand S Rathod, PhD, PE, professor of Division of Engineering Technology, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan is recognized for a career of dedicated, unselfish service to engineering and technology education, as a leader in education, faculty member, and as a contributor to professional societies. Dr Rathod lead the Division of Engineering Technology as director and chair during 1987-2003. Prior to joining WSU, he worked at State University of New York at Binghamton as coordinator of mechanical engineering technology program and assistant

Conference Session

Mathematics in Transition

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Bella Klass-Tsirulnikov, Sami Shamoon College of Engineering (formerly Negev Academic College of; Sharlene Katz, California State University-Northridge

Tagged Divisions

Mathematics

2006-528: THE CONCEPT OF INFINITY FROM K-12 TO UNDERGRADUATECOURSESBella Klass-Tsirulnikov, Sami Shamoon College of Engineering (formerly Negev Academic College ofEngineering), Beer Sheva, Israel Bella Klass-Tsirulnikov is a senior academic lecturer at Sami Shamoon College of Engineering, Beer Sheva, Israel (former Negev Academic College of Engineering). She accomplished mathematics studies at Lomonosov Moscow State University (1969), received Ph.D. degree in mathematics at Tel Aviv University (1980), and completed PostDoc studies at Technion - Israel Institute of Technology (1982). From 1995 she also holds a Professional Teaching Certificate for grades 7 – 12 of the Israeli Ministry of

Conference Session

Environmental Engineering Curricula

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Nicholas Scambilis, Sinclair Community College; Jennifer Wise, Sinclair Community College

Tagged Divisions

Environmental Engineering

2006-1661: TAC-ABET ACCREDITATION – A NEW PROCESS, A NEWBEGINNINGNicholas Scambilis, Sinclair Community College Dr. Scambilis, a Professor at Sinclair Community College, is the Chair of the Environmental Engineering Technology, Safety Engineering Technology and Fire Science Technology programs. He has a PhD in Environmental Engineering from the University of Missouri. He retired as a Colonel from the U.S. Air Force where he served as a Civil Engineer. He has been at Sinclair for nine years.Jennifer Wise, Sinclair Community College Jennifer Saygers-Wise earned her Bachelor in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Arizona and her Masters in Engineering from the University of

Conference Session

Biology in Engineering

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Kurt Rosentrater, USDA-ARS; Kasiviswanathan Muthukumarappan

Tagged Divisions

Biological & Agricultural

Education, 2006 BIOREFINING OF RENEWABLE RESOURCES – EMERGING OPPORTUNITIES FOR ENGINEERING EDUCATIONAbstractThe society in which we live has developed an insatiable demand for energy and material goods.Historically these needs have primarily been met by utilizing fossil fuels and other non-renewable raw materials. As environmental concerns grow, however, renewable resources aregaining increased attention. This paper examines industrial biorefineries, which are at theleading edge of the development of emerging biobased industries. Biorefineries, similar inconcept to traditional petroleum refineries, utilize various conversion technologies to producemultiple products, including fuels, chemicals, industrial products, and electrical

Conference Session

Emerging Trends in Engineering Education Poster Session

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Keith Williamson, East Carolina University; Gene Dixon, East Carolina University; Paul Kauffmann, East Carolina University; Tarek Abdel-Salam, East Carolina University

2006-266: DEVELOPING A FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING (FE) BASEDCOMPETENCY MODULE FOR A FRESHMAN ENGINEERING COURSEKeith Williamson, East Carolina University Dr. Keith Williamson is an Associate Professor in the Department of Technology Systems at East Carolina University. He received his Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from Tufts University. Dr. Williamson’s current research is focused on University/K12 partnerships and thermo-mechanical processing. He was previously on the faculty in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Old Dominion University.Gene Dixon, East Carolina University Gene Dixon is a faculty member at East Carolina where he teaches professional practices topics to

Collection

2006 Fall ASEE Middle Atlantic Section Conference

Authors

Carol Shields

Engineering Our Future New Jersey Elementary School Carol Shields CIESE Stevens Institute of TechnologyAbstractEngineering is Elementary (EiE), developed by the Boston Museum of Science, is a set ofcurricula that integrate engineering and technology concepts and skills with elementary sciencelessons. Each EiE module contains lessons that integrate an elementary school science topic witha specific field of engineering and features hands-on activities that engage students in theengineering design process.Two modules, Water, Water, Everywhere (environmental engineering) and Catching the Wind(mechanical engineering

Conference Session

Biology in Engineering

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Mark McConkie, Utah State University; Timothy Taylor, Utah State University; David Britt, Utah State University

Tagged Divisions

Biological & Agricultural

2006-2342: REDEFINING A BIOLOGICAL ENGINEERING UNDERGRADUATECURRICULUM: PROFITS, PITFALLS, AND PRACTICALITYDavid Britt, Utah State University David Britt is an Assistant Professor of Biological Engineering. His research interests focus on renewable polymers, molecular imprinting, and biofilm formation. He is currently the Principle Investigator for an NSF Planning Grant in the Department Level Reform Division.Mark McConkie, Utah State University Mark is currently a doctoral student in the department of Instructional Technology at Utah State University specializing in the representation of declarative knowledge for systems that improve recall of textual material, and also the field of open

Conference Session

Environmental Engineering Curricula

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Jason Lynch, U.S. Military Academy

Tagged Divisions

Environmental Engineering

than those experienced by other engineering disciplines. An American Society ofEngineering Educators 2002 report identified that U.S. environmental engineering enrollmentsdeclined by around forty-four percent between 1997 and 2001.9 This shortage in environmentalengineering undergraduate enrollments exists both domestically and internationally.10,11,12 Figure 2. First Year Enrollment Trends for Smaller Engineering Disciplines8What factors potentially contribute to the decline in environmental engineering enrollments andwhat recommendations can be offered to stop this downward spiral? A Massachusetts Instituteof Technology enrollment study prepared in 2002 identified several key issues that affected howundergraduate students selected a

Conference Session

Environmental Engineering Curricula

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Daniel Oerther, University of Cincinnati; Cathy Maltbie, University of Cincinnati; Baikun Li, Pennsylvania State University-Harrisburg; Jin Li, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee; Amy Pruden, Colorado State University; Peter Stroot, University of South Florida

Tagged Divisions

Environmental Engineering

retain faculty withexpertise in environmental biotechnology. In particular, notices seeking faculty candidates oftenspecifically request applications from individuals with expertise in molecular biology (e.g.,available job posting of the Association of Environmental Engineering and Science Professorsweb site at www.aeesp.org). Although genomic technology is revolutionizing many of theresearch programs in environmental engineering, these technologies have not been transferredsuccessfully to the undergraduate and graduate curricula at many institutions.4ApproachThe overall objective of this project is adaptation and implementation of a successful NSF CCLI

Conference Session

Environmental Engineering Curricula

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

William Epolito, U.S. Military Academy; Michael Butkus, U.S. Military Academy

Tagged Divisions

Environmental Engineering

2006-641: DEVELOPMENT OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGICALPROCESSES COURSE IN AN UNDERGRADUATE ENVIRONMENTALENGINEERING CURRICULUMMichael Butkus, U.S. Military AcademyWilliam Epolito, U.S. Military Academy Page 11.467.1© American Society for Engineering Education, 2006 Development of an Environmental Biological Processes Course in an Undergraduate Environmental Engineering CurriculumIntroduction Environmental engineering students study a wider variety of scientific subjects than mostother engineering students due to the breadth of the environmental engineering field.Traditionally, the biology taught in many environmental engineering programs has been focusedon biochemical

Conference Session

Engineering and Public Policy Pioneering Courses

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Kristen Tull, Lafayette College; Sharon Jones, Lafayette College

Tagged Divisions

Engineering and Public Policy

program are either interested in engineering management careers, or areusing the degree as a foundation for careers other than engineering. Because of the diversestudent interests, the course is designed to allow the students to understand the pervasive role ofgovernment in the technical arena, and the need to use/manage technology within that context.The emphasis of the course material is on the federal level, however international, state, andlocal differences are included. This paper presents the curriculum for EP251 and discussesinstructor observations about how well the course works for sophomore engineering students.The instructor is interested in feedback about the need for such a curriculum.IntroductionLafayette College offers a sophomore

Conference Session

Engineering Without Borders Programs Involving Students

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Bernard Amadei, University of Colorado-Boulder; Robyn Sandekian, University of Colorado-Boulder; R. Scott Summers, University of Colorado-Boulder; Angela Bielefeldt, University of Colorado-Boulder

Tagged Divisions

International

2006-220: ENGINEERING FOR DEVELOPING COMMUNITIES: INTEGRATINGEDUCATION, RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT, AND SERVICE/OUTREACHINTO ENGINEERING EDUCATIONBernard Amadei, University of Colorado-Boulder Bernard Amadei is Professor of Civil Engineering and Director of Engineering for Developing Communities Program at CU Boulder. He is the founder of Engineers Without Borders-USA and co-founder of EWB-International.Robyn Sandekian, University of Colorado-Boulder Robyn Sandekian is Associate Director of the Engineering for Developing Communities Program and the Service Learning Program Coordinator for the College of Engineering and Applied Science. During spring semester 2006 she taught the appropriate technology

Conference Session

Faculty Involvement in International Engineering Education

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Mark Henderson, Arizona State University

Tagged Divisions

International

in global engineering education (GEE). By GEE, we meaneducating engineers with a global mindset to improve their Global Competency. This can bedone in many ways and many conference papers explain how a given university has createdprograms to help engineers be exposed to global technology, culture, communication andcollaboration. Typical programs offer study abroad for engineering students, but some also offermulti-national teaming on projects with common objectives.Conferences and symposia have their place, but sometimes the participants need extended timefor goal-directed discussion. With this purpose in mind, faculty who were known to be involvedin GEE programs gathered for a workshop held at Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona

Conference Session

Preparing Engr Students for International Practice

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Rosalyn Hobson, Virginia Commonwealth University

Tagged Divisions

International

2006-1657: THE ROLE OF ENGINEERING EDUCATION IN INTERNATIONALDEVELOPMENTRosalyn Hobson, Virginia Commonwealth University Rosalyn S. Hobson is an Associate Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University. She received her B.S. ('91), M.S. ('95), and Ph.D. ('98) degrees in electrical engineering from the University of Virginia. Her research includes the use artificial neural networks for signal processing and controls problems, science and technology in international development and engineering education. She joined VCU in the fall semester of 1996. Page 11.1326.1© American Society for

Conference Session

Environmental Engineering Curricula

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Kevin Bower, The Citadel; Kenneth Brannan, The Citadel; William Davis, The Citadel

Tagged Divisions

Environmental Engineering

William Davis is an Associate Professor in the Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering at The Citadel in Charleston, SC. He obtained a B.S. in Civil Engineering from the University of Alabama, M.S. from Auburn University and earned a Ph.D. in Transportation Engineering from the Georgia Institute of Technology. Dr. Davis is a member of ASEE, American Society of Civil Engineers, Institute of Transportation Engineers and Transportation Research Board. He serves as Chair of the Education and Student Chapter Committee for the Institute of Transportation Engineers – District 5. Page

Conference Session

Environmental Engineering Curricula

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Alexa Rihana-Abdallah, University of Detroit Mercy

Tagged Divisions

Environmental Engineering

2006-2544: BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING,CHEMISTRY, AND BIOLOGYAlexa Rihana-Abdallah, University of Detroit Mercy The Author has written a number of articles published in the ASEE Annual Conference proceedings over the years. The Author teaches at the University of Detroit Mercy in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering. Page 11.285.1© American Society for Engineering Education, 2006 Bridging the Gap between Environmental Engineering, Chemistry, and BiologyAbstractRecognizing the intellectual merit of interdisciplinary studies to

Conference Session

Biology in Engineering

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Matthew Verleger, Purdue University; Heidi Diefes-Dux, Purdue University; Jenna Rickus, Purdue University

Tagged Divisions

Biological & Agricultural

technology.Heidi Diefes-Dux, Purdue University Heidi Diefes-Dux is an Associate Professor in the Department of Engineering Education (ENE) at Purdue University with a joint appointment in the Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering (ABE). She is the chair of the ENE Graduate Committee and she is a member of the Teaching Academy at Purdue. She received her B.S. and M.S. in Food Science from Cornell University and her Ph.D. from ABE in 1997. Her research interests include open-ended problem solving, evaluation of education technology, and first-year and graduate curriculum development.Jenna Rickus, Purdue University Dr. Rickus joined the Purdue faculty in 2003 as an Assistant Professor in

Conference Session

Assessing Perceptions of Engineers and Engineering

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Leroy Cox, University of Missouri-Rolla; Cassandra Elrod, University of Missouri-Rolla

Tagged Divisions

K-12 & Pre-College Engineering

2006-1129: PERCEPTIONS OF ENGINEERING DISCIPLINES AMONG HIGHSCHOOL STUDENTSCassandra Elrod, University of Missouri-Rolla Cassandra C. Elrod is doctoral student in the Engineering Management and Systems Engineering department at the University of Missouri – Rolla. She holds a Bachelors degree in Engineering Management with an emphasis in Management of Technology (2003), and a Master’s degree in Engineering Management (2004), both from UMR. Her research interests include learning styles, engineering education, and organizational behavior issues.Leroy Cox, University of Missouri-Rolla Leroy R. Cox is a postdoctoral fellow in the Engineering Management and Systems Engineering department at the

Conference Session

Assessing Perceptions of Engineers and Engineering

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Olga Pierrakos, Virginia Tech; Michael Alley, Virginia Tech; Pavlos Vlachos, Virginia Tech

Tagged Divisions

K-12 & Pre-College Engineering

to engage in hands-onresearch. The progression of research transfer through the different levels of engineeringeducation is illustrated in Figure 1. At the end of this development ladder, we find the future,interdisciplinary engineers who are leaders in industry, technology, and academia. In this effort, Page 11.1407.2via research transfer and examples, another goal is the recruitment of middle school and highschool students and the retention of freshman engineers. Recruiting and retention can beincreased by creating awareness and improving the image and perceptions of engineering duringthe early educational stages. This goal will be

Conference Session

K-12 Programs for Recruiting Women

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Jan DeWaters, Clarkson University; Susan Powers, Clarkson University; Mary Graham, Clarkson University

Tagged Divisions

Women in Engineering

Engineering Education, 2006 Partners in Engineering: Outreach efforts provide holistic engineering education for middle school girlsAbstractThe Partners in Engineering (PIE) program brings together 8th grade girls and female engineeringstudents from Clarkson University to experience mentoring, leadership, and real-life engineeringproblem solving. The program aims to empower young women to make informed and educatedchoices for advanced coursework and careers in engineering and technology-related fields. Ateam of female engineering student mentors teaches a three-week long engineering problemsolving unit to 8th grade technology classes, in which students apply an engineering

Conference Session

Opportunities for Entrepreneurship Programs

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Heidi Neck, Babson College; John Bourne, Olin College; Stephen Schiffman, Olin College

Tagged Divisions

Entrepreneurship & Engineering Innovation

College Dr. John R. Bourne was previously Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering and Professor of Biomedical Engineering at Vanderbilt University, where he had been on the faculty since 1969. He also held the position of Professor of Management of Technology between 1991 and 1998. Dr. Bourne received his Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering in 1969 from the University of Florida. In 1982 he served as a Visiting Professor at Chalmers University in Goteborg, Sweden, and in 1990 he was a Visiting Researcher at Northern Telecom. He has had varied research interests over the last three decades that include: Quantitative Electroencephalography, Visual Evoked Response Studies, Syntactic

Conference Session

Assessing Perceptions of Engineers and Engineering

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Stephen Thompson, University of South Carolina; Jed Lyons, University of South Carolina

Tagged Divisions

K-12 & Pre-College Engineering

2006-1981: INVESTIGATING THE LONG-TERM IMPACT OF ANENGINEERING-BASED GK-12 PROGRAM ON STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OFENGINEERINGJed Lyons, University of South CarolinaStephen Thompson, University of South Carolina Dr. Thompson is an Assistant Professor of Elementary Education at the University of South Carolina and the Research Director of the South Carolina Center for Engineering and Computing Education. He teaches courses in science education and classroom instructional technology. His research interests include Engineering Education K-16, collaborations between university-based STEM personnel and K-12 teachers, and inquiry-based instruction

Conference Session

Assessing K - 12 Engineering Education Programs

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Laura Bottomley, North Carolina State University; Karen Hollebrands, North Carolina State University; Elizabeth Parry, North Carolina State University

Tagged Divisions

K-12 & Pre-College Engineering

HOLLEBRANDS is an Assistant Professor of Mathematics Education at North Carolina State University. She completed her Ph.D. in Mathematics Education at The Pennsylvania State University. Prior to attending Penn State, Dr. Hollebrands taught high school mathematics in New York and North Carolina. She is currently serving as the editor of the Technology Tips column in the Mathematics Teacher.Elizabeth Parry, North Carolina State University ELIZABETH A. PARRY is currently the Project Director of RAMP-UP, a K12 math outreach program funded by the GE and the National Science Foundations. She obtained her BS degree in engineering management with a minor in mechanical engineering from the University of

Conference Session

Environmental Engineering Curricula

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Kristen Tull, Lafayette College; Lee Clapp, Texas A&M University-Kingsville; Donna Fennell, Rutgers University; Tim La para, Minnesota; Alok Bhandari, Kansas State University; Sharon Jones, Lafayette College

Tagged Divisions

Environmental Engineering

subsequent career as opposed to degree name for categorization. 1The main purpose of our recent effort is to evaluate the diversity of the environmentalengineering field. Our study evaluates gender diversity and ethnic diversity among U.S. citizensand permanent residents in terms of African Americans, Hispanic Americans, and NativeAmericans. Engineering diversity remains a problem in the USA despite ongoing efforts bygovernment, academia, and the private sector. Chubin et. al. (2005) reported that since 1995, theproportion of women and minority freshman in engineering is declining.2 However, for a similartime period, the representation of women and minorities in science, technology, engineering andmathematic (STEM) fields at both the baccalaureate

Conference Session

Environmental Engineering Curricula

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Bruce Berdanier, Ohio Northern University

Tagged Divisions

Environmental Engineering

environmental design topics and project management topics to junior and seniorlevel undergraduates in Civil Engineering at both Ohio Northern University and the SouthDakota School of Mines and Technology. The paper is presented here as a case study of aspecific project for the professional development of engineering faculty.It is suggested that a definition of Liberation Engineering for the governance of international Page 11.1436.2service work be considered in guiding the efforts of our society members in their internationalservice pursuits: “Liberation Engineering is the study and implementation of practices anddesigns to meet the “life needs” of