Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division Technical Session

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Rebecca A Bates, Minnesota State University, Mankato; Michael C. Loui, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign

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Engineering Ethics

Paper ID #8098Interactive Session: Including Ethical Discussions in your Technical ClassesDr. Rebecca A Bates, Minnesota State University, Mankato Rebecca A. Bates received the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the University of Washington in 2004. She also received the M.T.S. degree from Harvard Divinity School in 1993. She is currently Professor and Chair of the Department of Integrated Engineering program at Minnesota State University, Mankato, home of the Iron Range and Twin Cities Engineering programs. She was a 2011-12 AAAS Science & Technology Policy Fellow at the National Science Foundation.Prof

Conference Session

Socio-Technical Issues in Engineering

Collection

2016 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Ayush Gupta, University of Maryland, College Park; Andrew Elby, University of Maryland, College Park; Chandra Anne Turpen, University of Maryland, College Park; Thomas M. Philip, University of California, Los Angeles

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Engineering Ethics

-off of not being able toanalyze large sections of the data, but a small slice. We are hoping that the thin slice of datawould be complemented by the thick analysis that we present.AnalysisOur selected segment for analysis comes from the second focus group meeting. This was the firsttime that they were meeting to discuss a concrete socio-technical case study on wastemanagement in Delhi and the conflict between informal waste workers and companiesincentivized under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol. On the first focusgroup session (the week before), the conversation had focused on getting the group members toknow each other a bit more, setting ground rules, and exploring potential topics to discuss atlength. As the

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics V

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

John Ochs, Lehigh University; Lisa Getzler-Linn, Lehigh University; Margaret Huyck, Illinois Institute of Technology; Scott Schaffer, Purdue University; Mary Raber, Michigan Technology University

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Engineering Ethics

Prototypes Create and Manage Intellectual Property Figure 2. Process followed in the Lehigh’s IPD courses (Modified with permission from Page 14.250.6 “Product Design and Development” by Ulrich and Eppinger12)Lehigh University’s IPD program runs for two semesters over the calendar year and the processin Figure 2 is divided into the following six milestones each with a tack board session where theteam must defend the work competed.During the spring semester (January to May) the teams 1) develop an understanding of thebusiness and technical context of

Conference Session

Understanding our Students & Ethical Development

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Natalie C.T. Van Tyne, Colorado School of Mines; Maria Brunhart-Lupo, Colorado School of Mines

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Engineering Ethics

may actually turn out to be better for their society than for those of previousgenerations.Objectives for This StudySince we know that engineers are obligated, through the ABET Code of Ethics and similarengineering-based codes, to work for the benefit of public welfare,4 and that future engineers willnot escape this responsibility, we conducted this study to address the following questions:1. How well do first year students develop a basic understanding of ethical responsibility in theengineering profession, given the cultural orientation of the millennial generation?2. Is a one-session workshop sufficient to develop a basic understanding of engineering ethics?Research MethodologyDuring each of the Fall 2012 and Spring 2013 semesters, a total

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division Technical Session 1

Collection

2015 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

David A. Rogers P.E., North Dakota State University; Orlando R. Baiocchi, University of Washington, Tacoma; Paulo F Ribeiro, UNIFEI

Tagged Topics

Diversity

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Engineering Ethics

Frequency 1 Atomic Bomb Morality of Use 12 2 Chemicals Insecticides and Herbicides 12 3 Hydro Dams/Three Gorges Human Impact 11 Genetic Engineering in 4 General 9 Agriculture 5 Nuclear Energy General 9 Genetically Modified 6 Farming 7 Organisms 7 Drones Morality/War 6 8 Hydro Dams/Three Gorges Cultural

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division Technical Session 1

Collection

2015 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Bill D Carroll P.E., University of Texas, Arlington; Bob P. Weems, University of Texas, Arlington; Bahram Khalili, University of Texas, Arlington

Tagged Divisions

Engineering Ethics

at Austin. He is a Fellow of the Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and a licensed professional engineer in Texas and Alabama. Carroll has co-authored two textbooks, a tutorial book, and numerous papers and technical reports. He has received an American Society for Engineering Education Outstanding Young Faculty Award, two National Aeronautics and Space Administration Technology Innovation Awards, and three IEEE Computer Society Service Awards. He is an IEEE Computer Society Golden Core Member and a recipient of the IEEE Third Millennium Medal. Carroll served as Dean of the College of Engineering at UTA from January 1, 2000 to August 31, 2011. During his service as dean, the

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division Technical Session 1

Collection

2015 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Sara A. Atwood, Elizabethtown College; Brenda Read-Daily, Elizabethtown College

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Diversity

Tagged Divisions

Engineering Ethics

grading, but it was generally much better than technical reports with minimal issues with grammar, spelling, wordiness etc. • Students were encouraged and rewarded for exercising creativityFor the future, instructors are developing a survey to use for more targeted assessment of theassignment, and are considering ways to push for higher levels of ethical understanding whilemaintaining the fun and creativity of the assignment. With a smaller cohort of students, ameeting with the instructor to provide early feedback would help develop more ethical grey areasin the scenarios. One interesting addition would be to invite a professor from the EnglishDepartment to give a session on creative writing. Also, offering a follow-up discussion

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division Technical Session 1

Collection

2015 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Bijan Sepahpour, The College of New Jersey

Tagged Divisions

Engineering Ethics

the forty(40) formidable questions at an interview, understanding fit, and learning how to search for andmaximize the chances for obtaining good packages in pursuit of graduate studies. Most, if not allof such activities may be addressed through four to five relatively short sessions. However, in amore comprehensive course, offering ten 80-minute sessions (or 12 one-hour sessions), elementsof engineering ethics, sustainable design, green engineering, and a general understanding of theglobal economy may be added to the agenda. In this process, the facilitators may recognize theadvantages of having a class of multi-disciplinary engineering students for creation of someexciting and relevant exercises for the above “added” topics. This paper

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division Technical Session 1

Collection

2018 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Madeline Polmear, University of Colorado, Boulder; Angela R. Bielefeldt, University of Colorado, Boulder; Daniel Knight, University of Colorado, Boulder; Chris Swan, Tufts University; Nathan E. Canney, CYS Structural Engineers Inc.

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Diversity

Tagged Divisions

Engineering Ethics

reachedconsensus on 15 more names. After this second solicitation, 10 more interviews werecompleted. The selection process and discussion was repeated for a third and final time,generating 18 names and leading to 11 interviews. Each member of the research team haddifferent criteria but all were motivated to select educators who were thought to representhigh impact ESI instructional practices. The primary criteria and rationale motivating theselections of each member of the research team are summarized in Table 1.Table 1. Motivations for selecting educators to participate in interviewsMember of Selection RationaleResearch Team1 Totaled the number of topics and teaching methods indicated in the survey to select

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division Technical Session 1

Collection

2015 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Daniel J. Biezad P.E., California Polytechnic State University

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Diversity

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Engineering Ethics

the above examples of ethical dilemmas, has often fallen flat and attimes favored efficiency and raw technical progress over ethical concerns. The ethical challenge appears to be clear: how can we foster and provide meaning and purposefor all individuals, no matter their talent, motivation, or status, given an increasingly materialistworldview and the individual’s shrinking importance within it; that is, given an ethicalworldview based on reason alone? This is the modern ethical conundrum, the moral challengethat confronts the current and probably the next generation. If the supremacy of reason—both within science and in the conduct of human affairs—is anecessary condition for a moral and ethical society in the modern world, it remains

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division Technical Session 1

Collection

2015 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Tobias Rossmann, Lafayette College

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Diversity

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Engineering Ethics

small technical issues escalated into catastrophic mission ending failures(including Apollo 13 and Thresher submarine incidents). Since the Apollo 13 story is wellknown due to the movie, the lecture for this topic sought to weave several elements togetherwhich created a coherent story about a single issue: the transport of pure oxygen. Short technicalhistories were given behind the Apollo 1 fire, the Apollo 13 cryogenic tank failure, and theValuejet 592 crash due to O2 canisters. The issue was then brought to further relevance byquickly examining modern oxygen transport events (2-3 significant issues reported every year tothe National Transportation Safety Board) and extending the discussion to the use andtransportation of Lithium batteries

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division Technical Session 1

Collection

2018 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Xiaofeng Tang, Ohio State University; Jeffrey M. Catchmark, Pennsylvania State University; Eduardo Mendieta; Thomas A. Litzinger, Pennsylvania State University

Tagged Divisions

Engineering Ethics

eliminate ethics related contents in their courses. Table 2-Coverage of Ethics in the Current BE Curriculum  Courses Ethics Teaching Assignments Objectives Strengths ChallengesCourse 1 Used to have 2 lectures to Students write Case studies Tension between watch and discuss ethics about and orally allow for covering ethics and related videos. Removed present an conversations. technical contents. due to time pressure. ethical analysis.Course 2 3 brief discussions of Ethical Students are The

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division Technical Session 1

Collection

2018 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Laura Ann Gelles, Utah State University; Idalis Villanueva, Utah State University; Marialuisa Di Stefano, Utah State University

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Diversity

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Engineering Ethics

in a situation where he's probably running into some stuff that he's then legally obligated to report. Although that's, I guess, technically more legal than ethical but it's legal because it's ethical. (Lindsay, Graduate Student, Interview #1, Line 501)Some participants even mentioned the lack of specific rules that govern mentoring researchrelationships at an institution as a source of confusion as to what was ethical. In a memberchecking session where participants were asked to comment on their institutional policies thatrelate to research or graduate students, they reported a lack of policies that governed conductwithin research relationships and how mentoring was left out of faculty and student handbooks.Specifically

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division Technical Session 1

Collection

2018 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Angela R. Bielefeldt, University of Colorado, Boulder; Madeline Polmear, University of Colorado, Boulder; Chris Swan, Tufts University; Daniel Knight, University of Colorado, Boulder; Nathan E. Canney

Tagged Topics

Diversity

Tagged Divisions

Engineering Ethics

(ESI), encompassing both microethics and macroethics [1-3]. Oneapproach that might increase the amount and quality of ESI education in engineering is toidentify and promote “exemplars”. These models of ESI education can help current ethicseducators to improve their teaching and/or assessment practices, as well as inspire others tointegrate ESI education into their courses. This approach has been taken by the NationalAcademy of Engineering (NAE) which recently published a compendium of 25 “exemplaryeducation activities and programs” [4]. These were selected from among 44 submissions that“connected ethics to technical engineering content” and included assessment. A variety ofselection criteria were considered, including demonstrated impact on

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division Technical Session

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Rigoberto Chinchilla, Eastern Illinois University

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Engineering Ethics

draw the linebetween the need of qualified personnel from the private sector reflected in our curriculumdesign and the need to develop pure critical thinking skills and general abilities in engineeringand technology. More than that, there is no study of how the corporate demands might affect theacademic freedom of our instructors. At what point does teaching based on specific corporatedemands compromise the need to teach general skills that can be used at any company withproper training? How do we know if the skills we are teaching based on corporate demands are Page 23.294.3the set of skills these students will need if they move out of the

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division Technical Session

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Jessica A Kuczenski, College of San Mateo / San Francisco State University

Tagged Divisions

Engineering Ethics

and Century College were in general similar to those fromnational surveys, there were differences noted in the areas of exam cheating and plagiarism.IntroductionEngineering is an important and learned profession. As members of this profession, engineers arerequired to adhere to the highest principles of ethical conduct as engineering is a profession withpublic purposes, including contributing to public safety and the environment. Thus, engineersmust maintain standards of honest and conscientious practice as is crucial for maintaining humanwelfare.Dishonest (unethical) behavior in the engineering workplace has been found to be linked toacademically dishonest behavior in college.1-3 Unfortunately, academic dishonesty is widespreadin the United

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division Technical Session

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

David K. Ware; David J. Ahlgren, Trinity College; Harvey F. Silverman, Brown University

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Engineering Ethics

the dean of Engineering at Brown University. Dr. Silverman was a member of the IEEE Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing Technical Committee on Digital Signal Processing and was its chairman from 1979 until 1983. He was the general chairman of the 1977 ICASSP in Hartford. He received an IEEE Centennial Medal in 1984. He was Trustee of Trinity College in Hartford, Conn. from 1994 to 2003, and is a lifetime fellow of IEEE. Page 23.449.1 c American Society for Engineering Education, 2013 Educating Engineering Students about Ethics: Experiences at

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division - Technical Session

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Frank E Falcone, Villanova University; Edward F. Glynn P.E., Villanova University; Mark Edward Graham, Villanova University; Mark Doorley Ph.D., Villanova University

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Engineering Ethics

Paper ID #7537Engineering Ethics Survey for Faculty: An Assessment ToolProf. Frank E Falcone, Villanova University Professor Falcone is a member of the faculty of the Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering at Vil- lanova University. His primary fields of technical interest and experience are in Hydraulics, Hydrology, Fluid Mechanics and Water Resources. He has also taught Professional Practices in Engineering and En- gineering in the Humanistic Context which is a course focused on exploring a wide range of ethical issues confronting engineers and engineering students on a day-to-day basis. Falcone is registered

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division Technical Session

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

William J. Schell IV P.E., Montana State University

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Engineering Ethics

in need ofstrengthening. As a profession, engineering recognizes the importance of ethical behavior, citingit as the first obligation of a newly graduated engineering student,1 and as the final canon of theNSPE Code of Ethics.2 Given this recognition, engineers should take a leading role in serving asa positive role model for the ethical behavior expected within a healthy society. Engineeringeducators play a key role in developing engineers who see this role as a key aspect of theirprofessional responsibility. By ensuring that engineering ethics becomes an increasinglyimportant component of engineering education, educators can model the way to instill thesebehaviors in professional practice

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division Technical Session

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Brittney Hope Jimerson, North Carolina A&T State University ; Eui Hyun Park, North Carolina A&T State University; Vinod K Lohani, Virginia Tech; Steven M. Culver, Virginia Tech

Tagged Divisions

Engineering Ethics

addition, in light of the many highprofile news stories about unethical business practice, many industry and academic leaders havestressed the importance of increasing ethics content in engineering courses [1]. Engineeringstudents handle a lot of courses in their curriculum. Many programs are full of technicalinformation and leave little room for students to develop professional practices that aid them tobecome skillful communicators, ethical decision makers, team leaders, creative thinkers, andproblem solvers. Professional practices are essential and critical, since engineers regularlyinteract with all types of people in the world and create technical solutions that address complexsocial and environmental issues. Moral education could not be

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division - Technical Session

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Jodi Reeves, National University; Larysa Nadolny, Iowa State University

Tagged Divisions

Engineering Ethics

email in the office. Throughout the daythey visit different places on the island: the laboratory where data is taken, the salmon holdingpens, and the cafeteria for lunch. At the end of the day the employee goes to their remote officeto check email and then follows a path of questions to finish the activity and exit the island.After the activity, the student must create a report to recommend if these GMO salmon should beapproved for human consumption. To guide the students to their recommendation, a series ofquestions were provided. For example, the activist was asked to include the followinginformation in the report: 1. Provide general information. What is the advantage to the production of this GMO? 2. Identify the intended use and

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division - Technical Session

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Jason Borenstein, Georgia Institute of Technology; Robert J Butera, Georgia Institute of Technology

Tagged Divisions

Engineering Ethics

funding source.This paper outlines the strategy used to ensure that these students receive RCR trainingand seeks to highlight the challenges associated with implementing this training on acampus-wide scale at Georgia Tech. The aforementioned policy has both an online andan in-person component. For the purposes of this paper, the focus will be on the in-personportion. The policy is eventually supposed to grow to cover master’s students as well butthat process will not be discussed here.Federal policies and RCRSince 1989, NIH has required RCR education for trainees who are funded through certaincategories of its grants.[1] In 2009, NIH made several key modifications to its RCRpolicy. Included among the changes is that NIH now states that “online

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division Technical Session

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Justin L Hess, Purdue University, West Lafayette

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Engineering Ethics

engineering students, undergraduate non-engineering students, graduate students,to engineering faculty. The durations included 2 hours, 1 day, 1 semester, 2 years, and astudent’s entire undergraduate career. Of the 13 cases analyzed, 9 had a general orientation, notrelating explicitly to a given engineering discipline. 3/13 cases were designed towards civil andenvironmental engineering students, and 1/13 was aimed towards civil, environmental, andmechanical engineering students. The professorate leading the course was more variable.Engineering instructors had backgrounds or were teaching in biomedical, civil, environmental,mechanical, electrical and/or computer engineering. Liberal instructors included professoratefrom English, education, and

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division - Technical Session

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Trevor Scott Harding, California Polytechnic State University; Donald D. Carpenter P.E., Lawrence Technological University; Cynthia J. Finelli, University of Michigan

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Engineering Ethics

- ating methods to improve teaching, and exploring ethical decision-making in undergraduate engineering students. Dr. Finelli leads a national initiative to create a taxonomy/keyword outline for the field of en- gineering education research, and she is past chair of the Educational Research and Methods Division of the American Society of Engineering Education. Page 23.1272.1 c American Society for Engineering Education, 2013 Two Years Later: A longitudinal look at the impact of engineering ethics educationIntroductionBetween accreditation requirements [1

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division Technical Session

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Martin S. High, Oklahoma State University; Scott D Gelfand, Oklahoma State University, Department of Philosophy; Ronald Steve Harrist Ph.D., Oklahoma State University; Shelia M. Kennison, Oklahoma State University

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Engineering Ethics

with common, everyday ethicalchallenges. We suggest that students would profit immensely from learning why (otherwise)well-intentioned people fail to live up to their own moral commitments and/or the ethicalrequirements of their professions. And after teaching students about this last, we believe studentsshould be provided a set of tools, an ethical toolbox if you will, they can use to decrease thelikelihood that they will make ethical errors in the future. Most (perhaps all) professional ethicsclasses and textbooks neglect to provide students with these tools.1# (Note: We do not claim thatlearning ethical theory is unnecessary or ought to be eliminated. In fact, we believe ethical theoryis important. However, learning about ethical theory

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division Technical Session

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Marilyn A. Dyrud, Oregon Institute of Technology

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Engineering Ethics

Paper ID #5684Ancient Structural Failures and Modern Incarnations:Dr. Marilyn A. Dyrud, Oregon Institute of Technology Dr. Marilyn Dyrud is a full professor in the Communication Department at Oregon Institute of Technol- ogy, where she regularly teaches courses in rhetoric, business/technical writing, and ethics. She is also a part of the faculty team for the Civil Engineering Department’s integrated senior project. She has been active in ASEE for more than 25 years, serving as a regular conference presenter and moderator. She was OIT’s campus representative for seventeen years and served in various section leadership

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division Technical Session 3

Collection

2018 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Jessica Mary Smith, Colorado School of Mines; Nicole M. Smith, Colorado School of Mines; Greg Rulifson P.E., Colorado School of Mines; Carrie J. McClelland P.E., Colorado School of Mines; Linda A. Battalora, Colorado School of Mines; Emily A. Sarver, Virginia Tech; Rennie B. Kaunda , Colorado School of Mines

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Engineering Ethics

engineer with a passion for teaching the next generation of engineers to be well-rounded professionals who consider the broader impacts and effects of their work beyond the technical. Her cur- rent research interests include investigating pedagogical interventions in the classroom to build technical, professional, and lifelong learning skills.Dr. Linda A. Battalora, Colorado School of Mines Linda A. Battalora is a Teaching Professor in the Petroleum Engineering Department at the Colorado School of Mines (Mines) and a Shultz Humanitarian Engineering Fellow. She holds BS and MS degrees in Petroleum Engineering from Mines, a JD from Loyola University New Orleans School of Law, and a PhD in Environmental Science and

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division Technical Session - Assessment

Collection

2019 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Peter Wesley Odom, Purdue University - Department of Engineering Education; Carla B. Zoltowski, Purdue University-Main Campus, West Lafayette (College of Engineering)

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Engineering Ethics

Matrix was used for determining whichitems loaded to which factors. If it was apparent that an item was loading on the wrong factor, orif an item was loading too weakly (<0.3) the item was removed from the pool and the next roundof analysis was initiated. This took place (generally) in three cycles for each scenario (except forscenario 1). ResultsPartial Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results from all rounds of analysis refinement for each scenario are summarized below.The referenced index values, as well as corresponding Bartlett Test of Sphericity and Goodness-of-fit results, are all detailed in summary tables below each scenario section. These tables alsoinclude, for each round, how many

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division Technical Session 5

Collection

2018 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Mahsa Ghorbani, Colorado State University; Anthony A. Maciejewski, Colorado State University; Thomas J. Siller, Colorado State University; Edwin K. P. Chong Ph.D., Colorado State University; Pinar Omur-Ozbek, Colorado State University; Rebecca A. Atadero, Colorado State University

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Engineering Ethics

ethicaldilemma [1]. Well-designed case studies are those that make students realize that in real-worldethical challenges, there will be different factors and tradeoffs to consider.In our proposed framework for teaching ethics, we prepare case studies that are specificallyrelevant to the technical material in the formal curriculum, making it easier for the students torelate to the problem. In each case study, some background and general information is presentedwith reference to current real-world cases. This is done to make sure that students are aware ofdifferent aspects of the problem and how it is connected to other factors, such as cost analysis,existing and missing law and regulations, citizens’ rights, and cultural differences. A specificscenario

Conference Session

Engineering Ethics Division Technical Session - Classroom Practices

Collection

2019 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Angela R. Bielefeldt, University of Colorado, Boulder; David Zhao; Alexandra Danielle Kulich, Tufts University; Madeline Polmear, University of Colorado, Boulder; Nathan E. Canney, CYS Structural Engineers Inc.; Chris Swan, Tufts University; Daniel Knight, University of Colorado, Boulder

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Diversity

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Engineering Ethics

were included in the study to provide ‘baseline’ data, using a convenience sampleof civil engineering students that generated a fairly large response rate (italicized in Table 1).Among the 15 settings, 14 were courses and 1 was a co-curricular setting (Engineers WithoutBorders, EWB). The courses were all “full” courses (e.g. 3 credits) with the exception of the twoconvenience courses. Ethics content in the courses ranged from a small amount (e.g. FY courses,engineering science and elective courses), to a moderate amount (professional issues courses,communication course), to two courses fully focused on ethics. The majority of ESI settingswere in public institutions; three courses were at religiously-affiliated private institutions and oneat a