Asee peer logo
Well-matched quotation marks can be used to demarcate phrases, and the + and - operators can be used to require or exclude words respectively
Displaying results 4921 - 4950 of 22702 in total
Conference Session
Outcomes of Cooperative Education Assignments
Collection
2009 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Daniel Walsh, California Polytechnic State University
Tagged Divisions
Cooperative & Experiential Education
sources and sinks for projects at the institution. These include thecapstone design courses that are an integral part of each departmental curriculum, the seniorproject and thesis requirements for students, and the individual interests and efforts of bothstudents and faculty. In the current nascent stage of the PBLI there are a range of activitiesacross the spectrum of departments. Unit requirements for the capstone design experience rangefrom 4 to 9 quarter units, senior projects are occasionally integrated with capstone design, butmany are stand-alone classes or individual study experiences. Single student experiences are thenorm, with a few departments offering “interdisciplinary” experiences. Projects range frominstructor selected activities
Conference Session
Potpourri
Collection
2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Emily Dringenberg, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Mel Chua, Purdue University
Tagged Divisions
New Engineering Educators
Paper ID #8774What Can Reflections From an ”Innovation in Engineering Education” Work-shop Teach New Faculty?Emily Dringenberg, Purdue University, West Lafayette Emily Dringenberg is an NSF-funded PhD student in Engineering Education at Purdue University with a background in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering. Her interests include qualitatively exploring the experience of engineering students, impacts of personal epistemology, and curriculum and pedagogical design. She also enjoys engaging with engineering outreach.Mel Chua, Purdue University Mel Chua is a contagiously enthusiastic hacker, writer, and educator with over
Conference Session
Curriculum Development & Assessment in Nuclear and Radiological Engineering
Collection
2006 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Robert Long, Nuclear Stewardship, LLC; Altaf Memon, Excelsior College; Li-Fang Shih, Excelsior College; Byron Thinger, Diablo Canyon Power Plant
Tagged Divisions
Nuclear and Radiological
Competencies: A Case Study” Robert Long Altaf A. Memon LiFang ShihAbstractAt Excelsior College, one particularly unique dimension of student assessment is the IntegratedTechnology Assessment (ITA). This portfolio-based assessment method is a capstone experiencefor Engineering Technology students, documenting their ability to integrate knowledge fromvarious technical and general education areas and apply it in a meaningful way.The on-line learning environment facilitates a learner-centered approach to learning, with thelearner as an active participant in the learning process. The approach requires that
Conference Session
Student Experiences with Undergraduate Research
Collection
2020 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access
Authors
Joseph H. Holles, University of Wyoming
Tagged Divisions
Educational Research and Methods
Paper ID #29111WIP: An Undergraduate Theory and Methods of Research Class for HonorsStudentsDr. Joseph H. Holles, University of Wyoming Joseph H. Holles is an Associate Professor of Chemical Engineering at the University of Wyoming. His current research interests include overlayer bimetallic catalysts for controlled reactant/product binding to improve activity and selectivity. He is the Associate Editor for Chemical Engineering Education. American c Society for Engineering Education, 2020 Work in Progress: An Undergraduate Theory and Methods of
Conference Session
Division Experimentation & Lab-Oriented Studies - Mechanical Engineering Labs
Collection
2017 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Dustyn Roberts P.E., University of Delaware; D. R. Haidar, University of Delaware
Tagged Divisions
Division Experimentation & Lab-Oriented Studies
were expected to implement yellow lights as well as double-red states,and they were given the opportunity to integrate car presence sensors, a pedestrian crossing, anda mode in which a traffic officer could seize control of the indicator and advance the statesmanually. The cost of all materials needed for a single station for this lab was approximately$2,200.Figure 1: (Left) PLC Trainer Board, (Right) NI myDAQ & Pitsco myVTOLThe third experiment again used bang-bang or on-off control only, but this time to control thetemperature of the water in a cheap electric teakettle. Each team was assigned a different type oftea with a different optimal brewing temperature. Then, the students used an Arduino Unomicrocontroller, a temperature sensor
Conference Session
Hands-on Learning and Industry-Relevant in ECE Curriculum Development
Collection
2025 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Raluca Ilie, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign; Nan Kang, University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign
Tagged Divisions
Electrical and Computer Engineering Division (ECE)
visualization ofdifferent waveforms with user specified characteristics. In this study, learners have been surveyedto evaluate their knowledge gain and gather feedback on the VR learning experience.Despite the growing body of research, there is still a need to explore the integration of VR toolsinto engineering education, particularly for college-level courses. Our work seeks to fill this gapby developing and evaluating an innovative VR learning tool that facilitates conceptualunderstanding.VR Experience: Wave Polarization ExperimentThis VR experience introduces the learner to concepts pertaining to wave polarization. In order toprovide real-life context for the applicability of these concepts, the game environment is designedto resemble the experience
Conference Session
Software and e-learning in the ME curriculum
Collection
2006 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Yakov Cherner, ATeL, LLC; Arnold Lotring, Submarine Learning Center; Robert Klein, Submarine Learning Center; Thomas Campbell, Submarine Learning Center
Tagged Divisions
Mechanical Engineering
2006-2146: INNOVATIVE SIMULATION-BASED ONLINE SYSTEM FORLEARNING ENGINEERING AND TRAINING SAILORS’ TECHNICAL SKILLSYakov Cherner, ATeL, LLC Dr. Yakov E. Cherner, a Founder and President of ATEL, LLC, combines 20+ years of research and teaching practice with extensive experience in writing curricula and developing educational software. He is the author of an innovative concept of multi-layered simulation-based conceptual teaching of science and technology. This instructional approach uses real-world objects, processes and learning situations that are familiar to students as the context for virtual science and technology investigations. To facilitate this methodology for corporate and military
Conference Session
Flight and Control Simulators for Virtual Learning
Collection
2020 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access
Authors
Meron Lindenfeld, Farmingdale State College, State University of New York; Louis A. Scala, Farmingdale State College, State University of New York
Tagged Divisions
Aerospace
directed at theAviation Administration degree program. The courses within the program were found adequatein providing technical aspects and managerial concepts of airports. However, the faculty’sassessment led to an agreement that students may better appreciate technical and managerialairport concepts if they had a better understanding of the airplane itself and the airspace theynavigate that surrounds airports. At the time of this discussion, the professional pilot studentswere not targeted since their curriculum already included extensive coverage of these concepts. Itwas decided that these ideas would be brought up at the next Aviation Industry Advisory Boardmeeting.OpportunityIn summer 2017, an unusual opportunity presented itself in the
Conference Session
Pre-Service Development Initiatives
Collection
2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Daniel Tillman, The University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP)
Tagged Divisions
K-12 & Pre-College Engineering
class time (approximately 8 hours of class time,and equivalent outside of class work) was devoted to digital fabrication as aninstructional technology. Digital fabrication is an instructional technology that leveragesdesktop manufacturing software and hardware to translate digital designs into physicalobjects.18 Digital fabrication has affordances that might be of benefit within severalacademic content areas, including elementary mathematics education and elementaryscience education.19,20 The third section (Section C) of the course was a comparisongroup that utilized the standard course curriculum that did not include digital fabricationactivities.This study employed a convergent parallel mixed-methods design in which bothquantitative data and
Conference Session
Concurrent Paper Tracks Session I - Skills Development
Collection
2017 ASEE International Forum
Authors
Oksana Zhirosh, Innopolis University; Tanya Stanko P.E., Innopolis University
Tagged Topics
Main Forum (Podium Presentation)
indicated in brackets. We haveincluded some of the respondents’ quotes in Appendix 1. A. What is the mission of a PoP? Why would a university want/need to hire a PoP?Respondents indicated six possible reasons for IU to hire a PoP. The ability to demonstrate howknowledge is being applied in the real world was considered the most valuable contribution,both beneficial for students and faculty. 1. Knowledge of state of the art in the industry (N3) 2. Integration with the industry (N3) 3. To become a center of expertise (N2) 4. To demonstrate how knowledge is being utilized in the real world (N6) 5. Cost efficiency (N2) 6. Teaching curriculum – offload from
Collection
2015 Northeast Section Meeting
Authors
Corinna Fleischmann; Elizabeth Nakagawa; Tyler Kelley
the nation’s smallest service academy, the USCGA’s student body, of approximately 1000cadets, is tasked with the dual mission of earning a Bachelor’s of Science Degree and trainingservice ready Ensigns to commission in the United States Coast Guard. Due to this two-pronged 1 © American Society for Engineering Education, 2015 2015 ASEE Northeast Section Conferencemission, cadets in the Civil Engineering program face challenging time constraints as they arerequired to complete an Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET)accredited CE curriculum in addition to military requirements
Conference Session
Outcome Assessment, Quality, and Accreditation
Collection
2002 Annual Conference
Authors
J. Shawn Addington
constantly review and update their programs of study in order toensure the effectiveness of the curriculum and the marketability of their graduates, so must theassessment plans that evaluate those disciplines. This has never been more true than now,following the inception of ABET Engineering Criteria 2000. Designed to allow engineeringprograms more freedom in program content, ABET EC 2000 demands an assessment plan that Page 7.131.1evaluates not the number and type of courses offered by a program, but instead the quality of the“Proceedings of the 2002 American Society for Engineering Education Annual Conference & Exposition Copyright
Conference Session
Curriculum Development and Delivery Modes in Nuclear Engineering
Collection
2007 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Erich Schneider
Tagged Divisions
Nuclear and Radiological
some institutions, thisauthor found that no up-to-date text – one that draws upon very recent work by theAdvanced Fuel Cycle Initiative, Global Nuclear Energy Partnership, Organization forEconomic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Nuclear Energy Agency and others –is available. Therefore, a curriculum that draws upon recent works by these programsand agencies, using their publications in lieu of a textbook, was prepared. An extensivebibliography of these papers and reports is presented.Objectives and Approach Page 12.99.2The course objective was conveyed to the students via the following text, which appearedon one of the first slides presented: Many
Conference Session
Design, Creativity and Critical Thinking in the Chemical Engineering Curriculum
Collection
2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Bill B. Elmore, Mississippi State University
Tagged Divisions
Chemical Engineering
”, or “ I can’t wait to get into fluid mechanics!” (a first semester sophomore course inour curriculum) bring strong affirmation of this approach to the first-year engineering course. Page 24.311.8Observations, Assessment and ConclusionsAs the course has evolved over the nine years I have taught it, I have moved from a more open-ended project format to one where the projects have a “tighter” design window. For example, apast Team Challenge requiring pH control in a mixing tank involved students assembling “fromscratch” a completely automated systems from an assortment of disconnected pipes, pumps, andtanks (along with their LEGO NXT and Vernier
Conference Session
First-Year Programs: Focus on Student Success I
Collection
2021 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access
Authors
Andrew Charles Bartolini, University of Notre Dame; Victoria E. Goodrich, University of Notre Dame; Kerry Meyers, University of Notre Dame
Tagged Divisions
First-Year Programs
Engineering from Notre Dame. Her research focuses primarily on Engineering Education issues with specific interest in the first-year curriculum, experiential learning, and diversity and inclusion.Dr. Kerry Meyers, University of Notre Dame Dr. Kerry Meyers holds a Ph.D. in Engineering Education (B.S. & M.S. Mechanical Engineering) and is specifically focused on programs that influence student’s experience, affect retention rates, and the factors that determine the overall long term success of students entering an engineering program. She is the Assistant Dean for Student Development in the College of Engineering at the University of Notre Dame. She is committed to the betterment of the undergraduate curriculum and is
Conference Session
Student Perceptions of Self-efficacy, Success, and Identity
Collection
2020 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access
Authors
Juebei Chen, Aalborg University; Anette Kolmos, Aalborg University; Xiangyun Du, Qatar University
Tagged Divisions
Educational Research and Methods
recognition through interaction and negotiation the meanings with their teammembers, with the angle of the communities of practice theory. Findings could inspire theimprovement of students’ teamwork and learning experience, optimizing PBL curriculum design andincorporating effective learning activities for students’ engineering identity development.MethodThis is a pilot study to optimize the methodology and research design for a continuous exploration ofstudents’ engineering development through teamwork in PBL. Methodologically, a qualitativemethod is used in this study. Teamwork observation was conducted for an initial understanding ofstudents’ teamwork experiences. Main source of qualitative data in this study was collected throughsemi-structured
Conference Session
First-year Programs Division Technical Session 10: Paying Attention to Retention
Collection
2015 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Steffen Peuker, California Polytechnic State University; Nova Alexandria Glinski Schauss, Oregon State University
Tagged Divisions
First-Year Programs
career as an engineeringstudent. The benefits of this approach can be summarized as follows:  Individual accountability for success as an engineering student  Setting the goal of graduating with an engineering degree and developing a plan to achieve the goal will result in more efficient students, potentially reducing the time to graduation, and reduce the number of students who “drift aimlessly” through a curriculum  Students will perform better in all courses  The skills students develop to be an effective engineering students are the same skills they need in their later career  Learning to apply general student development topics from the course to their personal development planThe focus
Conference Session
Foundations for Pedagogical Success
Collection
2016 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Tanya Kunberger P.E., Florida Gulf Coast University; Chris Geiger, Florida Gulf Coast University; Kimberly A. Reycraft, Florida Gulf Coast University
Tagged Divisions
Engineering Libraries
increased engagement with the material, students oftenselect research topics based not on interest, but rather on the availability of information1.The Introductory Engineering CourseIntroduction to the Engineering Profession (EGS 1006L) is a one-credit course offered tostudents entering the engineering curriculum at FGCU. When this course was first created, it wasdone so within a brand new school of engineering. As such, “Introduction to the EngineeringProfession” was originally developed to provide an overview of the engineering programs atFGCU, and encourage students to consider engineering as a potential career choice. In Fall 2014,the course was revised to provide a more cohesive, meaningful first year experience that tied intothe pedagogical
Conference Session
DEED Technical Session 8 - Design Methodologies
Collection
2022 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Lisa Murray; Joseph Ekong, Western New England University; Seyed Niknam, Western New England University; Michael Rust, Western New England University
engineering curriculum on student design in the first-year engineering classes.Students are given a pre-intervention survey to gather information on their self-efficacy and priorexperience with AM. Students complete a design challenge prior to the DfAM educationalintervention that is then offered in the form of a design workshop in conjunction with a brieflecture. Ideas generated are collected and assessed using an assessment framework thatencourages the use of DfAM considerations. Parts are scored on a scale of 1 to 4 in the followingcategories: part complexity, assembly complexity, number of separate parts, functionality,thin/smallest feature size, smallest tolerance, unsupported features, support material removal andthe largest build plate contact
Conference Session
Innovations in Civil Engineering Education III
Collection
2010 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Matthew Roberts, University of Wisconsin, Platteville; Philip Parker, University of Wisconsin, Platteville; Michael Thompson, University of Wisconsin, Platteville
Tagged Divisions
Civil Engineering
University of Wisconsin—Platteville. The course isintended for sophomore students and serves two main purposes in the curriculum: 1. To introduce the students to civil engineering and the subdisciplines, and 2. To begin the development of an awareness of infrastructure and the challenges facing the United States with respect to infrastructure overcapacity and degradation.Details of efforts to incorporate exemplary teaching materials in the course development are pre-sented and the content of the course is outlined. As part of the course, students will be complet-ing an infrastructure assessment assignment inspired by the “Report Card for America’s Infra-structure”1 produced by the American Society of Civil Engineers. Assessment of student
Conference Session
Focus on Capstone Experiences in the Chemical Engineering Curriculum
Collection
2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
David F. Ollis, North Carolina State University
Tagged Divisions
Chemical Engineering
formats for the first year experience than do the grads. The table showsthat the new format results in faster engagement with a PhD research topic, advisorconversations, integration into lab groups, and conversations with the PhD committees.We conclude that the new format fruitfully addresses the prior concerns of both ourfaculty and graduate students.Spring proposition: An original or an echo ? Graduate students are uniformly supported by outside grants. According, foreach advisor topic offered to new students in our late fall student-advisor selectionprocess, a funded proposal already exists. Whether the spring proposition courseproduces a novel proposal is suspect, but the defining purpose of spring is for the studentto take ownership
Conference Session
Focus on Capstone Experiences in the Chemical Engineering Curriculum
Collection
2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
David L. Silverstein, University of Kentucky; Margot A. Vigeant, Bucknell University
Tagged Divisions
Chemical Engineering
survey,instructors viewed themselves as a guide or facilitator, bringing students through the textbookmaterial in a “rational way” and providing alternate explanations to the text. Others attempt togive a “big picture” view, tying various elements of the course (and the curriculum) together into Page 22.788.13a cohesive whole. For some, the role shifts as needed, from mentor to partner to coach dependingon the student and the situation. Some express the need for them to make the topic interestingand accessible, and to develop new examples and homework problems. The role as an evaluatorwas
Conference Session
Electrical and Computer Division Poster Session
Collection
2018 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Yufang Jin, University of Texas, San Antonio; Timothy Yuen, University of Texas, San Antonio; Stephanie Ann Garcia, University of Texas, San Antonio; Robin Lynn Nelson, University of Texas, San Antonio; Ruitao Jin, University of Texas, San Antonio
Tagged Divisions
Electrical and Computer
capability for engineering education.Dr. Timothy Yuen, University of Texas at San Antonio Timothy T. Yuen is an Associate Professor of Instructional Technology in the College of Education and Human Development at the University of Texas at San Antonio. His research investigates how learning technologies and transformative practices can improve learning, engage students, and broaden participa- tion in computer science and engineering.Stephanie Ann Garcia, University of Texas, San Antonio Stephanie Garcia is a Graduate Research Assistant with a MAED from the University of Texas at San Antonio with a concentration in Curriculum and Instruction. Her work with TRESTLE involves training Peer Assisted Learners (PALs) and
Conference Session
Mechanics & Mechanics Related
Collection
2021 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access
Authors
Sudeshna Pal, University of Central Florida; Ricardo Zaurin P.E., University of Central Florida
Tagged Topics
Diversity
Tagged Divisions
Mechanical Engineering
through project-based assignments. Students were askedif the assignments had helped them in enhancing their technical writing and oral communicationskills and if the assignments promoted teamwork and better relationship building amongst peers.In all three categories, approximately 55-64% of the students agreed that the project-basedassignments enhanced these soft-skills. Development of these skills are also an integral part ofthe learning outcomes outlined by the ABET accreditation board. 1 1 3 0 100 Strongly 23
Conference Session
Distance and Web-Based Learning in ET: Remote and Virtual Laboratories
Collection
2009 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Ranjeet Agarwala, East Carolina University; Andrew Jackson, East Carolina University; Jackson Sherion, East Carolina University
Tagged Divisions
Engineering Technology
AC 2009-1174: EFFECTIVELY DEPLOYING DISTANCE-EDUCATION (DE)LABORATORY COMPONENTS IN AN ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY SET UPRanjeet Agarwala, East Carolina UniversityAndrew Jackson, East Carolina UniversityJackson Sherion, East Carolina University Page 14.519.1© American Society for Engineering Education, 2009Effectively Deploying Distance Education (DE) Laboratory Components in an Engineering Technology EnvironmentAbstractThe goal of the Department of Technology Systems at East Carolina University is to supportthe economic development requirements of Eastern North Carolina by creating professionalsto meet the general engineering and technology needs of its private and
Conference Session
Intercollegiate and Cross-disciplinary Collaboration
Collection
2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Eng Keng Soh, Engineering Design and Innovation Centre, National University of Singapore; Ameek Kaur, National University of Singapore; Ming Po Tham, National UNiversity of SIngapore; Desmond Y.R. Chong, National University of Singapore
Tagged Divisions
Multidisciplinary Engineering
launching this EIM program, and lessons learned in the early phase of theprogram.IntroductionEngineering is an integral element in many branches of medicine today. Advancements in theseareas depend not only on clinical expertise, but also expertise in many areas of engineeringincluding genetic engineering, tissue engineering, biomechanics, and technology-drivenbreakthroughs in imaging, diagnostic and therapeutic medical systems. Also, successfuladoption of technology in medicine depends on an interdisciplinary cooperation amongspecialists in the various medical, rehabilitation and engineering fields.In spite of the interdisciplinary nature of Engineering in Medicine (EIM), curricula developmentand the training of specialists in Medicine and
Conference Session
Collaborative Projects in Architectural Engineering Education
Collection
2010 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Michael Symans, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; Mark Mistur, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; Bruce Danziger, ARUP
Tagged Divisions
Architectural
experience serving as the catalyst for this paper. He is now a major proponent of the Bedford Program within the School of Engineering and anticipates future collaborative work with the School of Architecture to develop formal assessment processes for continuous improvement of the program.Mark Mistur, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Mark Mistur is the Associate Dean of Architecture and Associate Professor at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute where he has been instrumental in developing a curriculum based on the inclusion of theoretical, design, and technical intelligences as necessarily integral to a progressive architectural design. His teaching and research focuses on innovations driven both by
Conference Session
Hands-on Learning and Industry-Relevant in ECE Curriculum Development
Collection
2025 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Derrick Korsi Agbenya, University of Idaho; Brian K. Johnson P.E., University of Idaho; Herbert L. Hess, University of Idaho; Paulo Henrique Barbosa de Souza Pinheiro, University of Idaho; Amani A Alomari, University of Idaho; Hangtian Lei, University of Idaho
Tagged Divisions
Electrical and Computer Engineering Division (ECE)
teaching and research interests include power system protection, integration of inverter-based generation, HVDC transmission, FACTS devices, cyber-physical systems security, and power system resilient control. He is a registered professional engineer in the State of Idaho.Dr. Herbert L. Hess, University of Idaho Herb Hess is Professor of Electrical Engineering at the University of Idaho. He received the PhD Degree from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in 1993. He is currently Program Chair of the ASEE Instrumentation Division. He was named an ASEE Fellow in 2018. His research and teaching interests are in power electronics, electric machines and drives, and analog and mixed signal electronics.Paulo Henrique Barbosa de
Conference Session
Mechanical Engineering: Statics and Dynamics
Collection
2022 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
A K M Monayem Mazumder, Saginaw Valley State University
Paper ID #37383Enhancement of Student Learning in an Engineering CourseThrough Hands-on Pedagogical ApproachesA K M Monayem Hossain Mazumder (Assistant Professor) A K M Monayem H. Mazumder received his Bachelor of Science from Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh, in 2006; Master of Science from the University of New Orleans, New Orleans, LA, in 2010 and PhD from the University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, in 2012, all are in Mechanical Engineering. During his PhD studies, he worked on various problems in electrohydrodynamics (EHD). He has been a Postdoctoral Fellow with Department of
Conference Session
Hybrid and Online Learning
Collection
2021 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access
Authors
Alison K. Polasik, The Ohio State University; Anastasia Marie Rynearson, Campbell University
Tagged Divisions
Materials
Assistant Professor in the Mechanical Engineering Department at Kanazawa Technical College and Future Faculty Fellow teaching First-Year Engineering at Purdue University. She focused on integrated STEM curriculum development as part of an NSF STEM+C grant as a Postdoctoral Research Assistant through INSPIRE in the School of Engineering Education at Purdue University Her current research interests focus on early P-12 engineering education and identity development. American c Society for Engineering Education, 2021IntroductionStudents need context to translate learning to deeper levels of knowledge and enduringunderstandings. Academics, many of whom have spent little to