Asee peer logo
Well-matched quotation marks can be used to demarcate phrases, and the + and - operators can be used to require or exclude words respectively
Displaying results 121 - 150 of 646 in total
Conference Session
Assessment and Evaluation in Design
Collection
2010 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Mark Steiner, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; Junichi Kanai, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; Richard Alben, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; Lester Gerhardt, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; Cheng Hsu, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
conducted course surveys at a project level as measured by theIDEA Diagnostic Form Report8. We obtained results for 15 teams in Fall 2008 and 20 teams inSpring 2009 where the average IDEA Survey response rate was 70% for a total of 168 studentsreporting across both semesters. As discussed next, we have used these survey data together withinformation from student reflective memos, to gain insights into the effects of the three coursechanges. Page 15.42.7Project Level Course OrganizationConducting course evaluations at a project team level has provided additional insight on theimportance of teamwork as a learning objective for multidisciplinary
Conference Session
DEED Poster Session
Collection
2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Kimberly Lau, University of California, Berkeley; Mary Kathryn Thompson, KAIST; Alice Merner Agogino, University of California, Berkeley
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
accessibility for research, shorter length questionnaire andthe ability to benchmark against prior work. Having fewer questions was particularly important,as we needed to translate the survey into the Korean language to administer in Korea. Page 22.31.2The Kolb model is based on the idea that “knowledge is created through the transformation ofexperience”17,18, and is built on two axes. The vertical axis represents how one thinks aboutthings, while the horizontal axis represents how one acts on things. The end of each axiscorresponds to a cognitive or behavioral extreme: Concrete Experience versus AbstractConceptualization, and Reflective Observation
Conference Session
Design in Engineering Education Division: Design Teams
Collection
2019 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Hadi Ali, Arizona State University, Polytechnic campus; Micah Lande, South Dakota School of Mines & Technology
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
prototypes that areincomplete and lacking more elaborate depictions containing all the fine details of the design. Itcan be a quick and efficient means to explore drafts and iterations of ideas, essentially sketchingin materials. The underpinning of this work is that prototyping, as a process, is an act ofexternalizing design thinking, embodying it through physical objects. It reflects one’s thinkingabout design through a design process, and also a learning process. It can serve to both develop adesign idea but can also inform the educator about how an individual or team navigates theirlearning experience.According to various studies, prototyping is considered to play an essential role in the designprocess [1, 2, 3]. For example, the process of
Conference Session
Design Across Curriculum 1
Collection
2020 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access
Authors
Ha Nguyen, University of California, Irvine; Liang Li Wu, University of California, Irvine; Gregory N. Washington, University of California, Irvine; Kyu Yon Lim, Ewha Womans University; Christian Fischer, University of Tübingen, Germany
Tagged Topics
Diversity
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
, collaborate and build, monitor progress, and reflect on tasks. However, research onPBL engineering discourse has placed a stronger focus on self-regulation than shared regulationprocesses [6], [7]. Understanding how students jointly regulate efforts may help to structurecollaborative tasks and promote efficient regulatory and design processes—two critical learningoutcomes in PBL [1], [7].MethodsStudy setting & participants. The study is part of a series examining the relation betweenperceived social network and collaboration patterns in engineering design. We followed fourfirst-year student teams in a two-term project-based engineering course in California in the 2018-2019 academic year. The goal of this elective course is to introduce students
Conference Session
Teamwork and Student Learning in Design
Collection
2018 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Marnie V. Jamieson, University of Alberta; John M. Shaw, University of Alberta
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
 Development  and  Team  Competence   Figure  1.  Design  Course  Metacognitive  Cycles  Progressing  Team  and  Project  Development  The three cycles are aligned with initial design project definition including solution generation;the design and modeling stage; and the design evaluation stage. The first cycle comprises:individual and team skill assessments used as inputs to form a team development and designproject task plan with schedule; monitoring experience and progress on the preliminary planexecution and with the team over a period of ~ 4 weeks; reflection on individual and peerevaluation coupled with task progress evaluation at the end of the 4 week period. The secondand third ~ 4week cycles are structured similarly. Shorter metacognitive
Conference Session
Design Pedagogy
Collection
2015 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Elissa T. Morris, Texas A&M University; Daniel A. McAdams, Texas A&M University
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
experiencethroughout their undergraduate studies. IDEA offers a design certification program for studentsafter completion of several design-related courses, an engineering design portfolio, and multipledesign projects 10. The portfolio must demonstrate the students’ proficiency in the designprocess, design analysis, prototyping and implementation, modern software tools, and effectivecommunication. To enhance communication skills and provide quality instruction and feedback,students collaborate with graduate students, post-doctoral researchers, faculty advisors, andindustry professionals to complete projects. Graduates of IDEA are trained to become competentdesigners and reflective practitioners of engineering. They acquire a well-rounded design skillsetthat
Conference Session
Teams and Teamwork in Design II / Design for Special Services
Collection
2007 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Susan Conry, Clarkson University
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
simple. 1. The problem to be addressed is chosen so that it has several relevant dimensions: 6 It must reflect a problem that a real client needs to have solved, and the client must be willing to interact with the students. 6 The students must not have had extensive experience working in the application domain involved, so it will be necessary to interact with the client in an interdisciplinary setting to determine necessary system features. 6 There must be several viable candidate system structures so that students have to evaluate alternatives in order to define the architecture in a manner that meets the client’s objectives
Conference Session
Student Empathy and Human-Centered Design
Collection
2018 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Justin L Hess, Indiana University-Purdue University, Indianapolis; Anusha Sathyanarayanan Rao, Indiana University-Purdue University, Indianapolis; Grant Fore, Indiana University-Purdue University, Indianapolis; Jiangmei Wu, Indiana University, Bloomington; Andres Tovar, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis; Sohel Anwar, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis
Tagged Topics
Diversity
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
emphasized creative thinking or doing. Hence, the primary contribution of this paperinvolves the development and testing of the instrumentation for evaluation purposes. In contrast,the pedagogical underpinnings of the Engineering Technology and Arts (ETA) curricula, ofwhich this course is a part, are described in Tovar et al. [8]. To help interpret the validity of thequantitative findings [9], potential causes of changes on survey constructs are considered in lightof observational data, focus groups, and reflections by the instructors on course implementation.1.2 Design of Complex and Origami StructuresThis course was developed as part of the Engineering, Technology, and Arts (ETA) track in themechanical engineering department at an urban research
Conference Session
Design in Engineering Education Division: Design Mental Frameworks
Collection
2019 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Eunhye Kim, Purdue University, West Lafayette
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
in team-basedlearning environments, and students’ teaming is evaluated as one of the learning objectives indesign courses. The evaluation has tended to rely on students’ self- or peer-reported data. Theself- or peer-evaluation process can encourage students to participate more actively in teamactivities and to self-reflect on their actions and contribution in teaming. However, the evaluationcan have some limitations because it could not allow educators to monitor and provide formativefeedback on cognitive aspects of students' participation and social interactions during theircollaborative inquiry and knowledge construction processes. Therefore, this study seeks out apotential way to examine and assess engineering students’ teaming in design
Conference Session
Best In DEED
Collection
2019 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Elisabeth Kames, Florida Institute of Technology ; Devanshi Shah, Florida Institute of Technology; McKenzie Carol Clark; Beshoy Morkos, Florida Institute of Technology
Tagged Topics
Diversity
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
performance metric for the study wasthe student’s final grade in the fall and spring semesters of the senior capstone design course, aswell as the delta in the student grade. The student’s grades were correlated to a numeric value forcomparison, which is reflective of the GPA calculation at Florida Institute of Technology. Thenumerical values for performance are represented as traditional GPA scoring whereby A=4.0,B=3.0, C=2.0, D=1.0 and F=0.To supplement the quantitative study results, the authors performed an exit interview with each ofthe senior capstone design teams. The students were asked a total of 19 questions, in an open-floor,interview type format. The students were instructed to be as specific as possible in their answers.The authors
Conference Session
Capstone Design Practices
Collection
2020 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access
Authors
Kurt Stephen Stresau, University of Central Florida; Mark W. Steiner, University of Central Florida
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
backgrounds, and various contextual influences.The proposed framework capitalizes on the use of existing survey tools and course data toconduct a mapping of faculty mentor beliefs/practices against student perception and recognitionof those practices. In conjunction with student reflective memos containing self-evaluations oftheir project and team experiences, interactions with faculty mentors, and overall satisfactionwith their educational experience, this data will combine to provide a multifaceted assessment ofwhich factors are influential and are value-added to the program. The mixed methods approachwill include quantitative statistical analysis of programmatic data, qualitative social networkanalysis-based assessment of peer evaluations, and
Conference Session
Research on Design Learning
Collection
2016 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Jackson Lyall Autrey, University of Oklahoma; Farrokh Mistree, University of Oklahoma; Zahed Siddique, University of Oklahoma
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
comments. In this paper, we cover the salient features of a course AME4163 –Principles of Engineering Design and the findings from an analysis of the learningstatements. In our work we find evidence that students in project-based designcourses are not being evaluated based on the actual learning taking place in thecourse, which we suggest is caused by a discrepancy between typical methods ofinstructor evaluation and the lessons learned by students over the course of aproject. This conclusion is based on our finding that there is no relationshipbetween student submitted learning statements and the grades that they achieved.Consequently, we suggest that the way students in project-based design coursesare evaluated must be changed to reflect
Conference Session
Best in DEED
Collection
2021 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access
Authors
Andrew Olewnik, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York; Vanessa Svihla, University of New Mexico
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
%), and their own capabilities (11%). Students frequently describedsolution requirements as constraints (38%) though in many instances these might be moreappropriately framed as objectives that do not necessarily constrain the solution. Thedevelopment of engineering requirements represents an important transition point in problemframing that moves the problem from a qualitative representation (e.g. needs statements,operating principles) to a quantitative one (i.e. metrics and values that reflect performanceobjectives and constraints). Students who overall lack of experience with ill-structured problems,and design problems specifically, have limited experience with this qualitative to quantitativetransition that is common in practice. Another
Conference Session
Design in Engineering Education Potpourri
Collection
2009 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Oscar Nespoli, University of Waterloo; William Owen, University of Waterloo; Colin Campbell, University of Waterloo; Steve Lambert, University of Waterloo
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
interruptedcase, where the case was delivered in modules, reflecting steps in the design process. A teachingnote was provided to each instructor and served as a recommended guideline for implementation.IntroductionThe Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) and General Motors ofCanada Limited (GMCL) support a program to enhance engineering design education at theUniversity of Waterloo. Waterloo Cases in Design Engineering (WCDE) has been established todevelop, implement and promote the use of engineering design cases across the Faculty ofEngineering curriculum.The unique feature of the WCDE program is that cases are developed from students’ own workterm reports. The University of Waterloo is a co-operative engineering school where
Conference Session
Design in Engineering Education Potpourri
Collection
2009 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Katie Cadwell, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Greta Zenner, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Naomi Chesler, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Wendy Crone, University of Wisconsin, Madison
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
reflective essay based on the video content was added as arequired assignment for all students. This assignment was designed to further encourage viewing Page 14.460.3of the video and assess understanding of the concepts it presented. The assignment is provided inAppendix I.New topics for which learning objects were introduced in Spring 2009 included Human Factorsand Ergonomics and Design Ethics. For the topic of Human Factors and Ergonomics, studentswere encouraged to watch a video on the topic and/or view narrated slides produced by a BMEfaculty member. An optional evening workshop was later offered for students whose currentdesign project required
Conference Session
DEED Postcard Session 1
Collection
2017 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Christopher R. Saulnier, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; John G. Brisson II, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
these connections, the wilderness environment is a particularly apt locationto consider Schön’s notion of design thinking as a process of reflection-in-action10. Asdescribed by Dym et al., design thinking “reflects the complex processes of inquiry andlearning that designers perform in a systems context, making decisions as they proceed,often working collaboratively on teams in a social process”9. Designing in and for awilderness environment is intended to provide the “surprises, pleasing and promising orunwanted” that would encourage students to respond as reflective practitioners to design-based learning prompts11(p56)Curriculum DevelopmentThe design-based wilderness education curriculum consisted of a series of lab andclassroom activities
Conference Session
Design in Engineering Education Division: Capstone Design Projects
Collection
2019 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Yupeng Luo, California State University, Fresno; Silvana Polgar, California State University, Fresno; Wei Wu, California State University, Fresno
Tagged Topics
Diversity
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
immersive interdisciplinary learningenvironment with a tangible scope, featuring direct mentorship of faculty and a local architect,collaboration between two colleges, and active interaction with a non-profit organization. Theproject is evaluated based upon information gathered from student design artifacts, constructionprocess documentation, and perceptual data via surveying and reflection. This paper discussesthe benefits and unique challenges of Design for Homeless (DfH) and provides insights on itsimplementation as a capstone experience.IntroductionCapstone design courses are intended to provide rich opportunities for student learning [1].According to Marin et al., successful capstone experience can be affected by many factors,including student
Conference Session
Design Pedagogy
Collection
2015 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Wei Wu, California State University, Fresno; Yupeng Luo, California State University, Fresno
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
: provide inputs to other team members from the owner’s perspective (more focus on budget and time control) to support their work; assist in design review and project documentation. ● One (1) Project Engineer (optional): provide inputs to other team members from a project engineer’s perspective (more focus on constructability) to support their work; assist in project documentation.Except for the LEED consultants, other team members were encouraged to rotate roles duringthe process to enhance their learning experience. The overall assessment plan of this studyemphasized on the learning progressions and periodical reflections, and included both formativeand summative approaches. Considering the lack of previous exposure
Conference Session
Assessment and Evaluation in Design
Collection
2010 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Mysore Narayanan, Miami University
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
with the responsibilityof promoting interest and enthusiasm for learning. Instructors are also encouraged to act ascognitive coaches who can nurture an environment that can support open inquiry (Barrows,2000). It is important that the aims and objectives of problem-based learning be reflected inevery aspect of the learning environment created. Problem-based curriculum should documentaccomplishments at the upper levels of Bloom's Taxonomy Triangle (Boud & Feletti, 1991).Scholars in the area of cognitive science and educational psychology have identified fourfeatures that clearly separate a problem-based curriculum from a traditional, topic-basedcurriculum (Nickerson, et. al. 1985). In this presentation, the author describes how he
Conference Session
Design Spine
Collection
2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Ming-Chien Hsu, Purdue University, West Lafayette
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
among expert andwork separately 12. Also, Klein believed that “engineering do not engage in critical reflection ofproblem choice, the epistemology of the disciplines being used, or the logic of disciplinary Page 22.1114.2structures” 13.There is a need to further explore the possible learning models, designed learningprocess, and observable outcomes in the cross-disciplinary engineering design context with theultimate goal of being able to facilitate cross-disciplinary learning. In this paper, we ask aresearch question of:  How can students’ cross-disciplinary practice be observed and described?This question is one of the many essential
Conference Session
Capstone Design Pedagogy I
Collection
2010 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
James Pembridge, Virginia Tech; Marie Paretti, Virginia Tech
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
: Comparison to Previous StudiesThe survey replicated several items from the 1994 and 2005 surveys to monitor trends acrosscapstone design curricula. Replicated topics included discipline of the respondent, structure andduration of the course, project details, and topics covered in class. Although the items werereplicated, some questions appeared in different formats in the 2009 survey. In particular, severalquestions used a “check all that apply” structure (based on pilot testing of the instrument11); as aresult, some responses from the 2009 data show a total of above 100%. In addition, the resultsfrom the previous studies were obtained from publications rather than from raw data. As such,the comparisons reflect a descriptive view of trends but
Conference Session
Design Teams 1
Collection
2021 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access
Authors
Ada Hurst, University of Waterloo; Christine Duong, University of Waterloo; Meagan Flus, University of Waterloo; Gregory Litster, University of Waterloo; Jordan Nickel, University of Waterloo; Aaron Dai, University of Waterloo
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
crits are common across many disciplines, including architecturaldesign, graphic design, and industrial design, providing a platform from which instructors canassess the work and design ability of their students [6]. In the field of architecture, studentscommunicate regularly with their peers and instructors, to reflect upon their design work [7].Interactions between students and their instructors and peers can range from informal discussionsthat focus on constructive feedback, or more formal discussions that are evaluative in nature [8].In the context of engineering education, the primary pedagogical tool are design reviewmeetings, which function similarly to design crits. They serve as a learning space where studentspresent the progress of
Conference Session
Design Teams 2
Collection
2021 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access
Authors
Swapneel Thite P.E., University of New South Wales; Jayashri Ravishankar, University of New South Wales; Araceli Martinez Ortiz, NASA Headquarters; Eliathamby Ambikairajah, University of New South Wales
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
leadershipskills as learning outcomes. 1. IntroductionEmployability of graduates is a trivial question that has been focused upon in the field ofengineering education for decades. There exists a gap between the skills possessed by graduatesand the industrial requirement. This is often reflected in the form of lack of professional skillswhich involves teamwork and leadership skills [1].The future of the industrial sector, represented by Industry 4.0 has specific requirements liketeamwork and leadership (T&L) skills, self-regulated learning, and critical thinking, which needsto be satisfied by Education 4.0 [2]. T&L skills are highly rated and required skills in theindustry [3]. The competencies defined in Engineers Australia stage 1 [4], consist
Conference Session
The Best of Design in Engineering Education
Collection
2009 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Renee Rogge, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology; Kay C Dee, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology; Glen Livesay, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
resultsprovide motivation for design instructors to consider helping their students manage stress inappropriate ways, to reinforce the idea that the design experience is a key opportunity totransition to professional work habits, and to encourage students to reflect on their experiencesand their learning. These attributes were correlated with better overall ratings of learning andinstruction. Page 14.476.2 1IntroductionDesign courses are, in many respects, different from other engineering courses. While studentsmay consider traditional courses as discrete or compartmentalized “units” of learning orconcepts
Conference Session
Multidisciplinary Design in the Classroom
Collection
2009 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Jason Foster, University of Toronto; Alexandra Heeney, University of Toronto
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
, fully supported group oral presentation.The revised learning objectives reflect continuing efforts within the Praxis Sequence to avoidprescribing particular tools and processes, in favour of providing more abstract goals thatstudents can meet using their choise of specific approaches.The learning objectives for Praxis III, as with all Praxis courses, cover both design andcommunications. This pairing of objectives is intended to emphasize that a design is only asgood as the effectiveness with which it is communicated.Design challengeA key goal during the design of Praxis III was ensuring that students did not perceive thedesign as being a “paper project” that existed solely within the context of the course, butrather perceive the course as
Conference Session
Teams and Teamwork in Design I
Collection
2007 Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Oenardi Lawanto, Univ Of Illinois-Urbana Champaign
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
metacognitive skills by students who engage in anopen-ended team-based design project.This study explores how a group of engineering students exercised their self-management ofcognition, through the way these students planned, evaluated, and regulated their cognitiveactivities, during the design process to build an engineering artifact. Using Paris and Winograd’slens of self-management of cognition, two research questions were constructed to guide thisinstrumental case study. They were: 1. How did individual members of the team execute their meta-cognitive ability as reflected in the way they plan, regulate, and evaluate any task they encounter throughout the project time? 2. How did the way they plan, regulate
Conference Session
Making in Design Education
Collection
2021 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access
Authors
Matthew Wettergreen, Rice University; Joshua Brandel
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
Table 1. The course is intended toadvance student proficiency level beyond their starting state; because students come to theclass with a variety of starting skill levels, each assignment has been written to accommodatefor this. To provide context for how different proficiency levels are accommodated in thehomework, an example homework assignment utilizing the laser cutter has been included inAppendix C. Apprenticeship is again mirrored in the grading schema, which is proficiency-based. Thismeans that grades reflect the overall knowledge gained by students throughout course activitiesrather than points earned for correct answers [8]. Each assignment is rubric is mapped to athree-tiered proficiency scale. Key characteristics of work
Conference Session
Best in DEED
Collection
2021 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access
Authors
Clay Swackhamer, University of California, Davis; Jennifer Mullin, University of California, Davis
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
process, to support team collaboration, to aid in theconstruction and testing of functional prototypes and, ultimately, to host an online final designshowcase for the 45 teams. Other top challenges involved pivoting the teaching and learning ofphysical computing technologies (i.e., Arduino, circuits and coding) through interactivesynchronous studio sessions in lieu of hands-on, in-person studio sessions. Elements of coursere-design efforts presented in this paper illustrate the course transition from in-person toemergency remote format. Mixed-method data collection included pre/post Engineering DesignSelf-Efficacy (EDSE) student survey (Carberry et al., 2010), mid-quarter anonymous studentfeedback and an end of quarter student reflection. Mid
Conference Session
Assessment
Collection
2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Alan Cheville, Bucknell University; Michael S. Thompson, Bucknell University
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
. Week Milestone 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 160: Team Formation / Project Selection 0-T1: Problem Definition / Project Scoping 1-T2: Team Research: Project 2-T3: Project Decomposition 3-T4: Individual Research: Subsystems 4-I5: Develop Mock-Up 5-I6: Report / Reflect
Conference Session
Teams and Teamwork in Design
Collection
2012 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition
Authors
Julia Ellen Melkers, Geogia Institute of Technology; Agrita Kiopa, Georgia Institute of Technology; Randal T. Abler, Georgia Institute of Technology; Edward J. Coyle, Georgia Institute of Technology; Joseph M. Ernst, Purdue University; James V. Krogmeier, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Amos Johnson, Morehouse College
Tagged Divisions
Design in Engineering Education
will report%"#"! " # $ "%higher levels of learning outcomes. Therefore we hypothesize:H2: Those students who actively seek out advice and problem-solving help from their peers will reporthigher learning on a range of learning outcomes than those who do not.Yet, within a student group, there may be variations in confidence and intellectual maturity. For example,junior students are likely to believe in the certainty of knowledge and omniscience of authority, whereasmore senior students have learned to recognize the contextual nature of knowledge and to gather and useappropriate evidence to support their judgments, as well to question their judgments in the light of theavailable evidence [15]. This variation reflects, for example, empirically