Conference Session

Measuring the Impacts of Project-Based Service Learning on Engineering Education

Collection

2010 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Gary Chinn, Pennsylvania State University; Veena Raman, Pennsylvania State University; Steve A. Walton, Pennsylvania State University; Thomas Litzinger, Pennsylvania State University

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International

AC 2010-1273: USING TECHNOLOGY-MEDIATED COLLABORATION IN THETEACHING OF ETHICS & GLOBALIZATIONGary Chinn, Pennsylvania State University Gary Chinn is project manager of the eLearning Initiative in the College of Engineering at Penn State. Sponsored by the Leonhard Center for the Enhancement of Engineering Education, the initiative explores new technologies and approaches related to teaching & learning.Veena Raman, Pennsylvania State University Veena Raman is a lecturer in the departments of Communication Arts and Sciences and Science, Technology, and Society at Penn State. Dr. Raman teaches courses on globalization, new information technologies, the cultural implications of new media

Conference Session

International Division Technical Session 5

Collection

2021 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access

Authors

Sweta Saraff, Amity University Kolkata; Roman Taraban, Texas Tech University; William M. Marcy P.E., Texas Tech University; Ramakrishna Biswal, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela

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International

Paper ID #32589Work in Progress: Creating an Internet Platform for USA and IndianStudents to Share Ethical ViewpointsDr. Sweta Saraff, Amity University Kolkata Sweta Saraff is an Assistant Professor in the department of Amity Institute of Psychology and Allied Sci- ences in Amity University Kolkata. She teaches Behavioral Sciences to University students. Her research interests are cognitive science, behavioral economics, learning pedagogies, cross-cultural communication, and text analysis.Dr. Roman Taraban, Texas Tech University Roman Taraban is Professor in the Department of Psychological Sciences at Texas Tech

Conference Session

Engineering Education and Comparative Studies at Universities throughout Asia, Far East

Collection

2012 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Samuel Ratnajeevan Herbert Hoole P.E., Michigan State University

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International

AC 2012-5037: LOCATION OF AN ENGINEERING FACULTY IN SRI LANKA:THE UNUSUAL CRITERIA, LESSONS LEARNT, AND ETHICS ISSUESProf. Samuel Ratnajeevan Herbert Hoole P.E., Michigan State University S. Ratnajeevan H. Hoole is a professor of electrical and computer engineering at Michigan State University in East Lansing, Mich. His research interests focus on computational methods, especially computing electromagnetic fields by the finite element method. His ongoing research is in shape optimization in coupled problems, determining the location and shape of objects so as to accomplish design objects in electrothermal problems in electric machinery, eco-friendly buildings, hyperthermia treatment planning in oncology, etc. This

Conference Session

Collaborative Learning, Project-Based, Service Learning, and Impacts on Engineering Education

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Ivan E. Esparragoza, Pennsylvania State University, Media

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International

AC 2011-160: INCORPORATING GLOBAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN AFRESHMAN ENGINEERING DESIGN COURSE THROUGH COLLABO-RATIVE DESIGN PROJECTSIvan E. Esparragoza, Pennsylvania State University, Media Ivan E. Esparragoza is an Associate Professor of Engineering at Penn State. His interests are in engi- neering design education, innovative design, global design, and global engineering education. He has introduced multinational design projects in a freshman introductory engineering design course in col- laboration with institutions in Latin America and the Caribbean as part of his effort to contribute to the formation of world class engineers for the Americas. He is actively involved in the International Division of the American

Conference Session

International Collaborations

Collection

2018 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Jiaojiao Fu, Beihang University; Qing Lei, Beihang University; Deborah M. Grzybowski, Ohio State University; Dongya Cheng, Tibet University

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International

Paper ID #23864What Should be Taught in Engineering Ethics Education Under Globaliza-tion?: Based on the Comparative Analysis of University Textbooks in Chinaand the United StatesMiss Jiaojiao FU, Beihang University Jiaojiao FU is a Ph.D. candidate in School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Beihang University Beijing, PRC. She received B.A. in China Agricultural University and M.Ed. in Beihang University, China. Her academic and research interests include engineering education, engineering ethics education, first-year engineering education, lifelong education. From April 2017 to October 2017, she was a visiting scholar

Conference Session

International Division Technical Session 9

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Steven H. Billis, New York Institute of Technology; Nada Marie Anid, New York Institute of Technology; Marta A Panero, New York Institute of Technology

Tagged Divisions

International

quartercentury of operations. A key initiative of the Master Strategic Plan was revisiting NYIT’s corecurriculum, created to provide students with an outcomes-oriented education that would preparethem for today’s workforce and easy entry into the global market.The “Discovery Core” focuses on specific foundations that are necessary for success in everyprofession, including skills in communications, critical and analytical thinking, aninterdisciplinary mindset, ethical and civic engagement, knowledge of the arts and sciences. Oneof its main learning criteria is a global perspective where “students can identifyinterdependencies among cultures and are able to collaborate effectively, and participate in globalsocial and business settings”. All academic

Conference Session

International Engineering Education: Developments, Innovations, Implementations, and Pedagogical Challenges in Engineering Education

Collection

2012 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Muge Mukaddes Darwish, Texas Tech University; Ali Nejat, Texas Tech University; Tewodros Ghebrab, Texas Tech University

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International

UniversityDr. Tewodros Ghebrab, Texas Tech University Assistant Professor of construction engineering Page 25.674.1 c American Society for Engineering Education, 2012 Globalization and the New Challenges for Construction Engineering EducationAbstractThe world has been transformed in past decades by a phenomenon affecting us all, what we callglobalization. Globalization brought a critical inquiry into the shifting ground of ethical thoughtin the changing climate of the global economy. The need to educate engineering students on howto work in a globalized

Conference Session

International Division Technical Session 3

Collection

2016 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Gholam Ali Shaykhian, Florida Institute of Technology; Jinan Ziade; Mohd A. Khairi, Najran University

Tagged Topics

Diversity

Tagged Divisions

International

particular ethical standpoint toward the content of religiosity,which may comfort the decision-maker and assist the decision-making process [34]. Personalspiritual beliefs affect the behavior and strategic decisions of top-level leaders and such beliefsaffect the measurement and adjustment of the spiritual climate of the leaders’ organizations.Other researchers have claimed that spiritual and religious beliefs influence leadership style inthe way leaders develop new skills and provide information relied upon in the workplace[27][34]. As cultures vary in different Middle Eastern countries, leaders of the region may interpretthe company’s business practices and frame personal reactions according to the individual’scultural background and

Conference Session

Faculty & Program Exchanges: Internationalizing, Collaborations, Interactions

Collection

2010 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Vinod Lohani, Virginia Tech; Ricky Castles, Virginia Tech; Gary Riggins, Virginia Tech

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International

this objective. The main topics discussed during the workshop are: (i) how to introducedesign experiences in first-year engineering curriculum, (ii) need to incorporate ethics instructionin Indian engineering programs, (iii) need to introduce hands-on learning to enhance earlylearning experiences of Indian engineering students, and (iv) how engineering curriculumdevelopment issues can be translated into PhD level engineering education research projects. Theworkshop was held on the campus of Infosys, Inc., a software giant in India. Two Americanstudents (Castles and Riggins), co-authors of the paper, accompanied the lead author and assistedin implementing the workshop activities. As one of the lead graduate students, Castle was deeplyinvolved

Conference Session

International Accreditation and Credentials: International Division Technical Session 1

Collection

2020 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access

Authors

Carmine C. Balascio P.E., University of Delaware

Tagged Divisions

International

could put some international engineering practices at odds with U.S.norms, there appears to be little evidence. The most important cultural aspects in this regard arethose associated with professional ethics. In a pair of articles published in Civil Engineering magazine, Tara Hoke, J.D., generalcounsel to the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), explored the characteristics of awide variety of engineering codes of ethics from a mix of developed and developing countriesaround the world in comparison to the ASCE Code of Ethics.14,15 She examined provisions inthe codes that address competence, truthfulness, faithful agency, fair competition, corruption,honor, integrity, dignity of the profession, professional development, and inclusion

Conference Session

International Division Technical Session 7

Collection

2016 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Walter McDonald, Virginia Tech; Daniel S. Brogan, Virginia Tech; Vinod K. Lohani, Virginia Tech; Gopalkrishna H. Joshi, KLE Technological University; Ashok S. Shettar, KLE Technological University

Tagged Topics

Diversity

Tagged Divisions

International

briefdescription of the course and the assessment strategy are discussed. Collaborative engineering educationresearch efforts and assessment of the fall 2015 data are ongoing and results will be included in the finalpresentation.2. Workshop Summary2.1 Experiences from First-Year Courses Topics One of the goals of the workshop was to share experiences from college-wide first year engineeringcourses at Virginia Tech. First-year engineering courses are required of all engineering freshman (~1,500/ year) at Virginia Tech with the purpose of introducing engineering students to the profession, datacollection and analysis, mathematical modeling, problem-solving, software tools, design, professionalpractices, communication, teamwork, ethics and the diversity

Conference Session

International Division Technical Session 8

Collection

2015 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Stephanie Marie Kusano, Virginia Tech; Aditya Johri, George Mason University

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International

this qualitativecase study was to better understand engineering students’ learning experiences in a EWB project,looking specifically at how students participating on the project exhibit attributes of globalengineering competencies. The case study investigates an EWB project with the mission ofdesigning and implementing a solar-powered electricity system for a school in Uganda. Wefound that students do exhibit attributes of global engineering competencies, although attributesregarding engineering cultures and ethics were exhibited more strongly than attributes regardingglobal regulations and standards. We discuss implications of these findings for educationalpractice and future research.IntroductionProviding engineering students opportunities

Conference Session

Global Engineering in an Interconnected World

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Kurt Rosentrater, USDA-ARS; Radha Balamuralikrishna, Northern Illinois University

Tagged Divisions

International

mechanisms for incorporating biological and bioprocessing instruction, either asindividual topics, components, or units that can be used as specific learning modules, intoexisting coursework. Many approaches have been found to be quite successful vis-à-vis Page 11.1294.10augmenting engineering and technology instruction by inserting additional materials intomainstream instruction [58]. Addressing engineering ethics is a prime example. Some avenuesthat have been shown to work well include integrating focused components (theory as well ascase study analyses) into specific technical courses [59-63], examining issues during technicalproblem solving in

Conference Session

Global Competency and What Makes a Successful Engineer

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Robert J. Gustafson, Ohio State University; Miriam Regina Simon, Ohio State University

Tagged Divisions

International

engineering and those defined for all students of the University by the Office ofInternational Affairs at Ohio State University. The eight are: 1. Understanding of global cultural diversities and their impact on engineering decisions. 2. Ability to deal with ethical issues arising from cultural or national differences. 3. Proficiency in a second language. 4. Ability to communicate across cultural and linguistic boundaries. 5. Proficiency in working in an ethnically and culturally diverse team. 6. Understanding of the connectedness of the world and the workings of the global economy. 7. Understanding of the international aspects of engineering topics such as supply chain

Conference Session

Global Engineering in an Interconnected World

Collection

2007 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Alexis Powe, Mississippi State University

Tagged Divisions

International

English natively or extremely fluentlyconverged at KNU from higher-education institutions in Canada, the United States, France, andthe Netherlands to offer eight separate courses in computer science, business ethics, chemical Page 12.1165.3literature review, introduction to psychology, international marketing, meteorology, philosophy,and technical communication (“Practical English”).Practical English was based on a preexisting, junior-level technical writing course required of allengineering and computer science undergraduates at Mississippi State University, an Americanpartner university of KNU. Practical English was a three-hour course (like GE

Conference Session

Global Engineering Education: Developments, Implementations

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Alan Parkinson, Brigham Young University; John Harb, Brigham Young University; Spencer Magleby, Brigham Young University

Tagged Divisions

International

and provides a significant reduction in the possibility of misunderstandings arising from poor translations or cultural gaps.6. Are proficient working in or directing a team of ethnic and cultural diversity. Explanation: Much engineering work is conducted in teams. As engineering work becomes more global in nature, engineering teams become more diverse and may include members of various ethnic, cultural and national origins. Developing this attribute relies heavily on developing communication skills across cultures (Dimension 2).7. Can effectively deal with ethical issues arising from cultural or national differences. Explanation: Ethical issues can be magnified when cultural issues come into play. For example, it is common in

Conference Session

International Division Technical Session 8

Collection

2016 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Cheryl Matherly, The University of Tulsa; Gisele Ragusa, University of Southern California; Sarah R. Phillips, Rice University & University of Hawaii - Manoa; Cody Alan Chapman, University of Tulsa

Tagged Topics

Diversity

Tagged Divisions

International

KSAs were often based on animprecise definition of global engineering competency define global engineering competency as“those capabilities and job requirements that are uniquely or especially relevant for effectiveengineering practice in global context.” This team identifies three dimensions: technicalcoordination, or working with or influencing people to complete a project in amultinational/multicultural setting; understanding and negotiating engineering cultures, whichrefers to the multinational/cultural differences in the actual practices and processes of technicalproblem solving; and navigating ethics, standards, and regulations, which occur when technicalcoordination or technical problem solving “happen in the midst of multiple – and

Conference Session

Preparing Engineers for the Global Workplace

Collection

2007 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

John Harb, Brigham Young University; Richard Rowley, Brigham Young University; Spencer Magleby, Brigham Young University; Alan Parkinson, Brigham Young University

Tagged Divisions

International

same view was emphasized in arecent study by the National Academy of Engineering on the required attributes of an engineerfor the year 2020. Besides technical excellence, the attributes include creativity, communicationskills, leadership abilities, integrity, flexibility, and a commitment to lifelong learning2.In this paper, we describe the strategy that the Ira A. Fulton College of Engineering andTechnology at Brigham Young University (BYU) is taking to meet these challenges. Thestrategy involves five key areas of focus: 1) Technical Excellence with a systems emphasis, 2)Leadership, 3) Character Development (including ethics), 4) Global Awareness and 5)Innovation that address the attributes needed for success in a changing global environment

Conference Session

Global and Intercultural Competency

Collection

2018 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Brent K. Jesiek, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Natascha Trellinger Buswell, University of California, Irvine; Qin Zhu, Colorado School of Mines

Tagged Topics

Diversity

Tagged Divisions

International

engineering education.Dr. Qin Zhu, Colorado School of Mines Qin Zhu is Research Assistant Professor in the Ethics Across Campus Program and the Division of Hu- manities, Arts & Social Sciences at Colorado School of Mines, where he is also helping with managing the Daniels Fund Faculty Fellows Program that provides scholarly and grant support for faculty to explore ways to integrate ethics into their applied science and engineering curricula. Qin is also completing his second PhD degree in the School of Engineering Education at Purdue University. Qin holds a bachelor’s degree in Materials Engineering and a PhD in Philosophy (concentration in Ethics of Technology and Engineering) from Dalian University of Technology (DUT

Conference Session

Nontraditional Teaching Approaches

Collection

2017 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Walter McDonald, Virginia Tech; Daniel S. Brogan, Virginia Tech; Vinod K. Lohani, Virginia Tech; Gopalkrishna H Joshi, KLE Technological University

Tagged Divisions

International

-year course activities Based upon results from the faculty workshop6, active learning activities were developed for thefirst-year course at KLE Technological University (Table 1). At the workshop, Virginia Tech researchersshared experiences in integrating active learning activities into first-year courses at Virginia Tech, whichincluded activities such as straw towers, balloon drops, a sustainable energy design project, mechatronics,ethics, and watershed monitoring. During the workshop, faculty at KLE Technological University adaptedthe activities to fit their local-context and educational needs. The overarching goal of these activities wasto engage the students in active learning that would improve student learning and motivation of

Conference Session

International Division Technical Session 3

Collection

2019 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Gholam Ali Shaykhian, Florida Institute of Technology; Jinan Ziade, Westcliff University; Mohd Abdelgadir Khairi, Najran University

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Diversity

Tagged Divisions

International

Confucianphilosophical influence on organizational culture; this affects how Chinese leaders operatebusinesses and view business ethics. Chen [17] concluded that understanding specific leadershipand followership skills led to better techniques that were specific to China and that make for asuccessful investment for those business leaders who established an operation in China. Similarawareness is useful when operating in MENA context. Global Organizations: Since the 2008 financial crisis of the United States, economicrecovery in the MENA region helped companies to expand business activities. The total valuefrom disclosed business agreements or transactions domestically rose to 54% of all deals at acombined value of $2.2 billion, whereas Qatar reached 21

Conference Session

Engineering Education in Africa and the Middle East

Collection

2010 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Lamyaa El-Gabry, The American University in Cairo - Mechanical Engineering Department

Tagged Divisions

International

and covers topics including History ofEngineering, Engineering fields of specializations, the engineering profession, engineeringcommunications, engineering ethics and societal obligations. It also focuses on teaching studentsthe engineering approach to problem solving and includes a course project. Community BasedLearning was introduced into the ENGR 101 course via the term project which is a requiredcomponent of the course. The project was to design toys for children ages 7 to 14 years at aschool in a disadvantaged squatter community in Old Cairo, Egypt, where infrastructure is poorand education and social mobility can be very limited. The project was carried out in partnershipwith a non-government organization (NGO) named ―Sohbit Khayr

Conference Session

Engineering Education Ties and Engineering Programs in the Middle East and Latin America

Collection

2012 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Lourdes Gazca, Universidad de las Américas, Puebla; Aurelio Lopez-Malo, Universidad de las Américas, Puebla; Enrique Palou, Universidad de las Américas, Puebla

Tagged Divisions

International

graduates ofundergraduate programs.Of the thirteen learning outcomes established by the ES15, eleven are the ABET Criterion 3 (a-k)program outcomes and the other two were added by the school. Then the thirteen learningoutcomes that were evaluated in this research are: 1. An ability to apply knowledge of mathematics, science and engineering. 2. An ability to design and conduct experiments, as well as analyze and interpret data 3. An ability to design a system, component, or process to meet desired needs. 4. An ability to function on multidisciplinary teams 5. An ability to identify, formulate, and solve engineering problems. 6. An understanding of professional and ethical responsibility. 7. An ability to communicate effectively

Conference Session

International Division Technical Session 5

Collection

2015 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Kacey D Beddoes, Oregon State University; Devlin Montfort, Oregon State University; Shane A. Brown P.E., Oregon State University

Tagged Topics

Diversity

Tagged Divisions

International

: technical coordination; understanding and negotiating engineering cultures;and navigating ethics, standards and regulation.16 Yet, the knowledge, skills, and attitudesrequired remain a subject of ongoing empirical research.17 Moreover, the lists of attributes thathave been developed suffer from methodological and theoretical concerns and are largely notgrounded in empirical research.18One broad definition of global competency is “the knowledge, ability, and predisposition to workeffectively with people who define problems differently than they do.”19 As this definitionhighlights, global competency requires not only specific knowledge, but also the ability andpredisposition to recognize that engineering problems are defined and solved differently

Conference Session

International Case Studies, Collaborations and Interactions

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Charlie Edmonson, University of Dayton; Donna Summers, University of Dayton

Tagged Divisions

International

the course, including a look at the pros and cons ofoffering such a course. The second half of this paper provides insight into a recent study abroadexperience in China involving engineering technology students.IET 415 Management of Technical OrganizationsIET 415, Management of Technical Organizations, began as a traditional organization andmanagement course. Over time, based on the input of our industrial advisory committee, thecourse evolved into a course focusing on four key topics: - developing a working knowledge of current business management practices - understanding the effects of globalization on organizational competitiveness - understanding how cultural diversity, ethical conduct and social responsibility

Conference Session

Global Engineering in an Interconnected World

Collection

2006 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Charles Schreier, University of Dayton; Carl Eger, University of Dayton; Margaret Pinnell, University of Dayton

Tagged Divisions

International

-learning (ETHOS) program at the University of Dayton as an integrated service-learning program modelAbstractThe Engineers in Technical, Humanitarian Opportunities of Service- learning (ETHOS) programat the University of Dayton (Dayton, Ohio), designed by an interdisciplinary undergraduateengineering student team under faculty facilitation, incorporates educational philosophies guidedby various diverse backgrounds. These guiding principles include appropriate technologies,sustainable development, the Catholic Marianist tradition, E.F. Schumacher’s “Small isBeautiful”, engineering ethics, service- learning principles, promotion of engineering vocationand other values consistent with appropriate application of humanitarian efforts. The

Conference Session

International Division Poster Session

Collection

2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Efra Altamirano; lourdes gazca, American University in Puebla, Mexico; Aurelio Lopez-Malo, Universidad de las Americas Puebla; Enrique Palou, Universidad de las Americas Puebla

Tagged Divisions

International

school stakeholder groups. Then thethirteen FE program outcomes that were evaluated in this research are: 1. An ability to apply knowledge of mathematics, science and engineering. 2. An ability to design and conduct experiments, as well as analyze and interpret data 3. An ability to design a system, component, or process to meet desired needs. 4. An ability to function on multidisciplinary teams 5. An ability to identify, formulate, and solve engineering problems. 6. An understanding of professional and ethical responsibility. 7. An ability to communicate effectively 8. The broad education necessary to understand the impact of engineering solutions in a global and societal context. 9. A recognition of

Conference Session

Develop Course / Materials / Topics for a Global Engineering Education

Collection

2009 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Melany Ciampi, Organization of Researches in Environment, Health and Safety; Claudio Brito, Council of Researches in Education and Sciences

Tagged Divisions

International

engineersdedicated to education. The curriculum follows the modular international engineering educationcurriculum that attends fully the education rules for the university level of formation in thecountry. It is a very dynamic and rich program, developed in modules, followed in severalcountries in the world. It follows the trend of global formation of professionals, mainly to attendthe need of a prepared engineering educator to act in the several different cultural environments,which mobility has imposed as a fact of life for researchers and teachers at graduation level. Newcompetencies of educators are needed such as: evaluation management; developmentcompetencies; communication skills; teamwork; ethics and intercultural competencies. Thisengineering

Conference Session

Preparing Engineers for the Global Workplace

Collection

2007 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Angela Bielefeldt, University of Colorado at Boulder; Bernard Amadei, University of Colorado at Boulder; Robyn Sandekian, University of Colorado at Boulder

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International

course goals include: (i) introduce students to open ended problems at the community level;(ii) help students develop the skills to solve those problems and provide holistic engineeringsolutions that are sustainable and appropriate to the community being served; (iii) help studentsdevelop cultural and social awareness; (iv) help students work in interdisciplinary teams; (v) givestudents the opportunity to reflect on the importance of their community service; (vi) givestudents a professional work ethic, and (vii) help students gain a better understanding of theimportance of engineering in society and in community development. Two different models forthe course have been used: in year one, a single team of three students worked on two

Conference Session

International Educational Experiences (2)

Collection

2017 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Tom Lacksonen, University of Wisconsin, Stout; Scott Springer P.E., University of Wisconsin, Stout; Devin R. Berg, University of Wisconsin, Stout

Tagged Topics

Diversity

Tagged Divisions

International

perspectives and factoring in the ethical,environmental, and social aspects when delivering this content in the engineering curriculum.12Various models exist for the integration of these topics into the curriculum such as generaleducation courses, specific engineering ethics courses, and various forms of service learningopportunities.13 It is likely that a combination of these approaches will be necessary to reallydrive change in the engineering profession that starts within the university.14 Additionally,however, it is also necessary to integrate these topics directly into the core technical content ofan engineering program.15 The challenge with this approach is to find the most effectivepedagogical approaches to integrate these skills and produce a