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Conference Session
Technical Sessions 5
Collection
2024 Fall ASEE Mid-Atlantic Section Conference
Authors
Bryan James Higgs, University of the District of Columbia; Ujwalkumar Dashrath Patil, Department of Civil Engineering at the University of the District of Columbia.
Tagged Topics
Professional Papers
keycriteria being the preparation of students to become lifelong learners. With this in mind, climatechange considerations can be integrated into the existing undergraduate curriculum in civilengineering such that the students that graduate are aware of the impacts that uncertainty inclimate change will be having on critical infrastructure systems. At The Graduate level, studentsare trying to advance their careers through gains and experience in particular disciplines. It is atthe graduate level that new courses added to the curriculum can better prepare students to able toanalyze and advocate for solutions that combat uncertainty associated with climate change andits impacts effectively. For graduate students to be fully prepared to address climate
Conference Session
Professional Papers
Collection
2025 ASEE Southeast Conference
Authors
Erin Bosarge, University of South Alabama
Tagged Topics
Diversity, Professional Papers
critical thinking abilities they needto responsibly navigate and contribute to an AI-driven world.1. IntroductionArtificial Intelligence (AI) has become a transformative force across industries, redefining theworkforce and global problem-solving approaches, from healthcare innovations to environmentalsustainability efforts [1], [2]. Just like integrating computer science understanding and skills intothe curriculum has gained momentum in recent years, so is true for AI. Students need to betterunderstand how the technology works and how to use it properly. Despite the need for studentsto understand how AI works, disparities in Kindergarten through 12th grade (K-12) AI educationpersist. This leaves many students unprepared to navigate an AI
Conference Session
Technical Sessions 1
Collection
2024 Fall ASEE Mid-Atlantic Section Conference
Authors
Gonca Altuger-Genc, State University of New York, College of Technology at Farmingdale; Akin Tatoglu, University of Hartford
Tagged Topics
Professional Papers
students in theresponsible and acceptable use of AI platforms, providing them with opportunities and guidanceto explore and leverage this new technology. The potential of ChatGPT in the classroom has beenanalyzed in various studies [3-5], highlighting its applications as a writing assistant, study tool,and personal tutor [6]. However, there are also concerns that the overreliance on ChatGPT mayadversely affect students' critical thinking and problem-solving skills [7]. As AI becomes moreprevalent in higher education, it is essential for educators, curriculum designers, andpolicymakers to understand the implications of integrating these tools into the educationalcontext.According to research [7], ChatGPT has the ability to respond immediately to
Conference Session
Technical Sessions 3
Collection
2024 Fall ASEE Mid-Atlantic Section Conference
Authors
Arzu Susoglu, SUNY Farmingdale
Tagged Topics
Diversity, Professional Papers
courses in data security, cryptography, computer forensics, and senior project writing. Her research interests include machine learning, artificial intelligence, cryptography, steganography, and security. Arzu focuses on providing hands-on learning experiences and integrating real-world applications into her curriculum, ensuring her students gain the skills needed for successful careers in technology and security fields. ©American Society for Engineering Education, 2024 Integrate the iPad, Apple Pencil, and Goodnotes, to enhance teaching effectiveness.AbstractUsing multimedia such as slides, diagrams, charts, and videos as visual aids during lectures hasproved
Conference Session
Professional Papers
Collection
2025 ASEE Southeast Conference
Authors
Gustavo J. Molina, Georgia Southern University
Tagged Topics
Diversity, Professional Papers
teaching of design methodologies, on solid mechanics and tribology, biofuels and nanofluids, and on design optimization by QFD-TRIZ integration. He has authored over 30 journal papers and a book chapter in tribology. ©American Society for Engineering Education, 2025 On teaching technical writing in an introduction to engineering design classAbstractThe author created a new course, MENG 2110 – Mechanical Engineering Case Studies in Designand Analysis, that introduces the modern design methods as well as the techniques of technicalreporting and communication of design solutions and engineering outcomes that are utilized inthe industry practice. The class requires
Conference Session
Technical Sessions 2
Collection
2024 Fall ASEE Mid-Atlantic Section Conference
Authors
Guozhen An, City University of New York, Queensborough Community College; David Mannes, City University of New York, Queensborough Community College; Dugwon Seo, Queensborough Community College, CUNY
Tagged Topics
Diversity, Professional Papers
underrepresented groups in the technology industry. The New YorkJobs CEO Council aims to support faculty in local community colleges to expand and strengthenapprenticeship programs in the New York City area [3]. These programs can help reduce the skillgap, particularly for underrepresented students. The author has received funding from the PerkinsGrant department to support its apprenticeship program, which helps students gain professionalexperience and refine their program applications.The apprenticeship program emphasizes situated learning in professional communities ofpractice to maintain alignment between education and industry. It has been integrated withtraditional college coursework, leading to an exploration of teaching methods that better
Conference Session
Professional Papers
Collection
2025 ASEE Southeast Conference
Authors
Nahid Vesali, The Citadel; Mostafa Batouli, The Citadel
Tagged Topics
Professional Papers
in a proposed FEConstruction Exam or the changes required in Construction Engineering (CONE) programcurricula to better align them with the existing FE Civil Exam. NCEES, academia, and industrystakeholders should conduct such studies collaboratively to ensure any proposed changes reflectboth academic preparation and industry needs.Developing a dedicated FE Construction Exam that aligns with the core competenciesemphasized in Construction programs would ensure a fairer licensure process for graduates.Revisiting curriculum design to integrate foundational topics like Fluid Mechanics andEnvironmental Engineering, which are critical for licensure and industry success, would furtherbridge the gap between academic preparation and licensure
Conference Session
Professional Papers
Collection
2025 ASEE Southeast Conference
Authors
Hai T Ho, Kennesaw State University; Scott J. Tippens, Kennesaw State University
Tagged Topics
Professional Papers
Paper ID #45457Engineering Student Retention: Integrating Corporate Onboarding Practiceswith Social Identity and Self-Determination TheoriesDr. Hai T Ho, Kennesaw State University Hai T. Ho, Ph.D., NPDP, ABET PEV - Dedicated faculty, coach, and mentor who helps others reach their full potential. An industry expert in leadership, management, and product development. * Over 25 years of industry experience ranging from start-up to Fortune 500. * Named inventor on 17 patents and numerous innovations. * Ten plus years academia as department chair and faculty. * Coached and mentor many dozens of students and young professionals
Conference Session
Professional Papers
Collection
2025 ASEE Southeast Conference
Authors
Nilanjana Raychawdhary, Auburn University; Chaohui Ren, Auburn University; Cheryl Seals, Auburn University; Sutanu Bhattacharya
Tagged Topics
Diversity, Professional Papers
learning in an NLP course?B. Which tools and techniques most effectively demonstrate NLP’s interdisciplinary applications,particu-larly in tasks like sentiment analysis in underrepresented languages?C. How can ethical issues, including AI bias, be integrated into the curriculum to promote sociallyrespon-sible understanding?[5]. Framework for NLP Education Theoretical Instruction Interdisciplinary Case Studies Interactive Tools Real-Time Feedback System Jupyter Notebooks Python Libraries (e.g., NLTK, SpaCy) Personalized Feedback Applications in
Conference Session
Technical Sessions 1
Collection
2024 Fall ASEE Mid-Atlantic Section Conference
Authors
Wenhai Li, Farmingdale State College; Yue Hung, Farmingdale State College; Reiss Guttman, Farmingdale State College; Sen Zhang, State University of New York, Oneonta; Ning Yu, State University of New York, Brockport
Tagged Topics
Professional Papers
/ML tools to solvereal-world engineering problems. For most engineering applications, simple AI models are often sufficient,and the ability to effectively apply these models is more critical than developing new ones. As a result,traditional AI/ML courses designed for Computer Science students may not be appropriate for METstudents, who should be trained as AI practitioners rather than AI model developers.To address the challenges of teaching AI/ML to MET students, we’ve designed a five-week AI/ML modulethat integrates directly into an existing robotics class. This approach allows us to bypass the need for newcourses in an already packed curriculum while providing practical exposure to AI within a relevant field.By embedding the AI/ML module
Conference Session
Professional Papers
Collection
2025 ASEE Southeast Conference
Authors
James Righter, The Citadel; Nathan John Washuta P.E., The Citadel; Deirdre D Ragan, Pennsylvania State University
Tagged Topics
Professional Papers
Paper ID #45840Application of a House of Quality Intervention in an Engineering CapstoneDesign CourseDr. James Righter, The Citadel James Righter is an Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the School of Engineering (SOE) at The Citadel. He earned his BS in Mechanical Engineering at the U.S. Naval Academy, his MS in Military Studies from the Marine Corps University Command Command and Staff College, and his PhD in Mechanical Engineering from Clemson University. His research interests include engineering leadership, design methods, engineering design education, and manufacturing.Dr. Nathan John Washuta P.E., The
Conference Session
Technical Sessions 1
Collection
2024 Fall ASEE Mid-Atlantic Section Conference
Authors
Rajarajan Subramanian, Pennsylvania State University, Harrisburg, The Capital College; Sofia M Vidalis, Pennsylvania State University, Harrisburg, The Capital College; Fazil T. Najafi, University of Florida
Tagged Topics
Professional Papers
and management, legal aspects, construction contract administration, public works, and Renewable Energy. ©American Society for Engineering Education, 2024 Writing skills can be improved using AI tools: An Analysis AbstractAt the college level, there are courses that teach 'Technical Writing' to engineering students atthe undergraduate level. Typically, the writing component in the curriculum presents asignificant challenge for undergraduate students as they work toward graduation. However, withthe introduction of Artificial Intelligence tools for writing, students find it somewhat easier toproduce written content for their courses.Artificial
Conference Session
Professional Papers
Collection
2025 ASEE Southeast Conference
Authors
Rebekah L Martin, Virginia Military Institute; Kacie Caple D'Alessandro, Virginia Military Institute; Charles D Newhouse P.E., Virginia Military Institute; Tanjina Afrin, Virginia Military Institute
Tagged Topics
Professional Papers
Paper ID #45801Capstone Projects in Virginia Civil Engineering Programs: A ComprehensiveReview of Practices and an assessment of Virginia Military Institute’s OutcomesDr. Rebekah L Martin, Virginia Military Institute Dr. Martin completed her bachelor’s in Civil and Environmental Engineering at Bucknell University and her PhD in Civil Engineering at Virginia Tech. She is currently an assistant professor at VMI teaching fluids, environmental engineering and water resources courses. Her research focuses on drinking water quality and public health. She also co-advises the Society of Women Engineers at VMI.Dr. Kacie Caple
Conference Session
Technical Sessions 2
Collection
2024 Fall ASEE Mid-Atlantic Section Conference
Authors
Orla LoPiccolo M. Arch, Pdip (CM), Architect, Farmingdale State College, State University of New York
Tagged Topics
Professional Papers
post-professional degree in Architecture Urban Regional Design from the New York Institute of Technology. Subsequently, Professor LoPiccolo earned a Postgraduate Diploma in Building Construction Management from New York University and a Passive House Designer Certification from the Passivhaus Institut, Germany. She has private-sector architecture and construction project management experience in Dublin, Ireland, and New York. Professor LoPiccolo has over ten years of public sector experience as an architect and a Community Development Project Supervisor with the Town of Islip. In addition, Professor LoPiccolo was an adjunct assistant professor in the School of Architecture and Design at NYIT for five years, teaching
Conference Session
Professional Papers
Collection
2025 ASEE Southeast Conference
Authors
Adeel Khalid, Kennesaw State University; Sanjeev Adhikari, Kennesaw State University
Tagged Topics
Professional Papers
andunderstanding of their own teaching processes [3]. AI, especially in knowledge representation andelicitation, can significantly aid teachers’ metacognitive skills and professional development byenabling detailed, context-specific reflection and adaptive decision-making [3]. Researchers [4]investigate how generative AI, as an advanced innovative tool, can transform engineeringeducation by creating content, enhancing personalized learning, and updating curricula efficiently.Yelamathi et al. (2024) [4] collected data through literature reviews and analysis of AI tools fromengineering fields. They found that generative AI can improve personalized learning andstreamline curriculum updates, enhancing education quality. However, their study [4
Conference Session
Professional Papers
Collection
2025 ASEE Southeast Conference
Authors
Priscilla J Hill, Mississippi State University; Bill B Elmore, Mississippi State University
Tagged Topics
Diversity, Professional Papers
Brightspace, and Moodle throughstandard Learning Tools Interoperability (LTI) protocols.There are a number of advantages to integrating MOM into an LMS platform. At our institution,Canvas is used as the LMS. It is a relatively simple procedure to integrate MOM into a Canvascourse and it only has to be done once per semester per course. Once integrated, Canvas exportsthe student list to MOM and can be seen in the MOM gradebook. The integration can be set upso that homework deadlines are set up in Canvas and exported to MOM. One benefit of theintegration is that MOM exports the grades to the Canvas gradebook. Therefore, students andinstructors can see the grades in Canvas. While only the grades are exported to Canvas,instructors can see student answers
Conference Session
Professional Papers
Collection
2025 ASEE Southeast Conference
Authors
Sean Walker, University of South Alabama; Kari J Lippert, University of South Alabama
Tagged Topics
Professional Papers
Systems.Dr. Kari J Lippert, University of South Alabama Dr. Kari Lippert, D.Sc., has over 45 years’ experience as a Systems Engineer serving in various roles in a wide variety of both commercial and government positions. She is currently an Assistant Professor in Systems Engineering at the University of South Alabama. She is a non-typical systems engineer having started her academic career in the biological sciences. She then moved into theoretical chemistry and biochemical simulation, then big data and databases, then systems, then cyberspace defense and network security. Analysis, design, implementation, integration, testing, requirements management, change management, risk, architecture, and process improvement – all
Conference Session
Technical Sessions 2
Collection
2024 Fall ASEE Mid-Atlantic Section Conference
Authors
Gonca Altuger-Genc, State University of New York, College of Technology at Farmingdale; Yue Hung, Farmingdale State College; Wenhai Li, Farmingdale State College
Tagged Topics
Professional Papers
design/development stage to completion of analysis and prototype developmentand testing stage. This paper will highlight the applied learning activities and components incorporatedin the senior project course along with course timelines, assessment process and student deliverables.IntroductionIn engineering and engineering technology programs, senior project (capstone project) is an integralcomponent of the learning process. Senior project courses offer students an opportunity to integrate theskills, knowledge, and know-how they acquired throughout their undergraduate education to complete aproject. In addition, the open-ended nature of senior project course provides an ideal setting for studentsto practice critical thinking and problem-solving
Conference Session
Technical Sessions 1
Collection
2024 Fall ASEE Mid-Atlantic Section Conference
Authors
Xiaojin Ye, State University of New York, College of Technology at Farmingdale; Nur Dean, Farmingdale State College, State University of New York
Tagged Topics
Professional Papers
interaction, and post-assessments, this research intends to providevaluable data that can inform educational practices. This study aims to identify key challenges,such as potential cheating and diminished learning outcomes, while also exploring how AI canbe ethically integrated into computer science education. The proposed findings will guide theredesign of assessments to mitigate risks while harnessing AI's benefits, ultimately providingeducators with a framework to improve student assessment in an AI-enhanced academicenvironment.KeywordsArtificial Intelligence, AI-Assisted Learning, ChatGPT, Computational Thinking, ComputerScience Education, Learning Outcomes, Academic Integrity, Critical Thinking, AssessmentDesign, Introductory Programming
Conference Session
Professional Papers
Collection
2025 ASEE Southeast Conference
Authors
Gregory J. Mazzaro, The Citadel
Tagged Topics
Professional Papers
 observation of parasitic inductance and capacitance in otherwise purely resistive/capacitive/inductive elements, at high frequencies.All of the “mini-labs” discussed in this paper (including the activities currently underdevelopment) may be implemented using instruments and components available to anundergraduate electrical (and/or computer) engineering department.References[1] G. Tartarini, M. Barbiroli, F. Fuschini, V. D. Esposti and D. Masotti, "Consolidating the electromagnetic education of graduate students through an integrated course," IEEE Trans. on Education, vol. 56, no. 4, pp. 416-422, Nov. 2013.[2] C. Furse, "Hands-on electromagnetics: Microstrip circuit and antenna design laboratories at USU," in IEEE Ant. Propag. Society
Conference Session
Technical Sessions 5
Collection
2024 Fall ASEE Mid-Atlantic Section Conference
Authors
Matthew Fried, SUNY Farmingdale; Mohammad Alshibli
Tagged Topics
Diversity, Professional Papers
Paper ID #45369The Impact of AI Assistance on Student Learning: A Cross-DisciplinaryStudy in STEM EducationProf. Matthew Fried, SUNY Farmingdale Matthew Fried is an Assistant Professor with a research focus in machine learning. His work includes the application of advanced mathematical techniques, such as the Choquet integral, to deep neural networks (DNNs). He has presented multiple papers on this topic at international conferences, contributing to the ongoing development of noise reduction and performance optimization in DNNs. ©American Society for Engineering Education, 2024 The Impact
Conference Session
Professional Papers
Collection
2025 ASEE Southeast Conference
Authors
M. Hassan Tanveer, Kennesaw State University; Rizwan Patan, Kennesaw State University; Carrington Chun, Kennesaw State University; Razvan Cristian Voicu, Kennesaw State University; Adeel Khalid, Kennesaw State University
Tagged Topics
Professional Papers
learning. Dr. Voicu is dedicated to exploring innovative applications of AI to enhance learning and problem-solving in complex environments.Dr. Adeel Khalid, Kennesaw State University Adeel Khalid, Ph.D. Professor Industrial and Systems Engineering Office: 470-578-7241 ©American Society for Engineering Education, 2025 Educating Engineers in the Design of AI-Enabled Agriculture Robots: From Concept Development to Field ImplementationAbstract:The growing global population requires a higher demand for agricultural production, driving theneed for intelligent solutions to automate tasks and optimize field operations. This paper proposesan engineering education curriculum integrating research and development
Conference Session
Professional Papers
Collection
2025 ASEE Southeast Conference
Authors
Shobhit Aggarwal, The Citadel; Gregory J. Mazzaro, The Citadel
Tagged Topics
Professional Papers
Paper ID #45817Enhancing Student Engagement in Electrical Engineering: The Impact ofHands-On Learning Tools on Student EngagementDr. Shobhit Aggarwal, The Citadel Dr. Aggarwal earned his Bachelor of Technology in Electronics and Communication from Kurukshetra University, India in 2014, a Masters of Science and Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the University of North Carolina at Charlotte in 2018 and 2023 respectively. After graduation, he served as an Embedded Firmware Engineer in an IoT-based Engineering organization in Charlotte and held a position as a Senior Embedded Software Engineer at a Fortune 500 electrical
Conference Session
Professional Papers
Collection
2025 ASEE Southeast Conference
Authors
Saeed Rokooei, Mississippi State University; George D Ford P.E., Mississippi State University; Read Allen Robertson, Mississippi State University
Tagged Topics
Diversity, Professional Papers
, S. Hashim, A. F. Zakaria, A. Ariffin, M. H. Amirudden, M. B. Rahim, N. Razali, I. M. Ismail and N. Sa'adan, "Gender Analysis of Work Readiness among Vocational," JOURNAL OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING, pp. 270-277, 2020.[15] M. Pareitti, L. Lower and K. McCray, "The Career Readiness of Intercollegiate Athletes: Is There a Gender Gap?," Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics , pp. 283-302, 2016 .[16] M. Chen, "Facilitating aerospace engineering senior design: Integrating lab curriculum redesign with student project and new technologies," Engineering Reports, vol. 6, no. 11, 2024.[17] M. Chen, "Synergizing computer-aided design, commercial software, and cutting-edge technologies in an innovative nozzle
Conference Session
Professional Papers
Collection
2025 ASEE Southeast Conference
Authors
Marino Nader, University of Central Florida
Tagged Topics
Diversity, Professional Papers
challenging for students, examining students is another challenge for both instructors as well asfor students2. Instructors are concerned with online testing due to the tendency that students cheat3or maybe tempted to cheat where possible, and when they are comfortable to do so4. Chegg5, AI6,Course Hero7 or any other sources could be hubs where students may refuge to during an onlineexamination, despite the remote proctoring software used. Apart from grade inflation, cheating canalso jeopardize the examination integrity, and the Engineering program of the educationinstitution8. Another challenge that instructors face is in preparing large pools of questions withthe right difficulty levels distributed equally for each student in each test8. The
Conference Session
Professional Papers
Collection
2025 ASEE Southeast Conference
Authors
Andrea Arce-Trigatti, Tennessee Tech University; Pedro E. Arce, Tennessee Technological University; Robby Sanders, Tennessee Technological University
Tagged Topics
Professional Papers
test apparatus for an engineering laboratory course.” Computer Applications in Engineering Education, 2024. DOI: 10.1002/cae.22773 12. M. Chen. “Facilitating aerospace engineering senior design: Integrating lab curriculum redesign with student project and new technologies.” Engineering Reports, 2024. DOI: 10.1002/eng2.12938AcknowledgementsThis material is based in part upon work supported by the National Science Foundation underGrant No. 2152218. Disclaimer: Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendationsexpressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of theNational Science Foundation.
Conference Session
Professional Papers
Collection
2025 ASEE Southeast Conference
Authors
Mostafa Batouli, The Citadel; Simon Thomas Ghanat P.E., The Citadel; Nahid Vesali P.E., The Citadel
Tagged Topics
Diversity, Professional Papers
systems thinking—core componentsof the entrepreneurial mindset. By focusing on these skills, the program aligns with broadereducational goals to prepare students for complex problem-solving in dynamic, real-worldcontexts.Since its inception, the KEEN Fellowship program has grown significantly, drawing participantsfrom various disciplines and institutions nationwide. Fellows undergo professional developmentthrough targeted workshops, such as Integrating Curriculum with Entrepreneurial Mindset (ICE)and Problem-Solving Studios (PSS), which equip them with pedagogical tools and frameworksthat foster active learning and cross-disciplinary applications. This growth reflects an increasingrecognition of the entrepreneurial mindset as essential for
Conference Session
Technical Sessions 2
Collection
2024 Fall ASEE Mid-Atlantic Section Conference
Authors
Margaret A Hunter, Hofstra University; Lynn A. Albers, Hofstra University; Jessica Santangelo, Hofstra University; Jacqueline Lee, Nassau Community College; Catherine Weinstein, Nassau Community College; Scott T Lefurgy, Hofstra University; Sean A Roberts, Nassau Community College; Suzanne Trabucco, Nassau Community College; Kristin Weingartner, Hofstra University
Tagged Topics
Diversity, Professional Papers
NSF S-STEM Funded iAM Program: Lessons Learned Implementing a Collaborative STEM Workshop for Community College and University PartnersAbstractIn alignment with the NSF Scholarships in Science, Technology, Engineering and MathematicsProgram (S-STEM) [1], a Two-Year Community College, Nassau Community College (NCC) andfour-year university, Hofstra University (HU) are within a five-mile radius of each other and arecollaborating. The objective is to recruit academically talented low-income students through twopipelines, retain them through transparency of the hidden curriculum, and see them through tograduation in a STEM field from HU [2]. The Integrated and Achievement Mentoring (iAM)Program is a Track 3 (multi
Conference Session
Technical Sessions 3
Collection
2024 Fall ASEE Mid-Atlantic Section Conference
Authors
Aiman Said Kuzmar, P. E., Islamic University of Madina, Saudi Arabia
Tagged Topics
Diversity, Professional Papers
integrated in this regard and the STEM acronym was elevated to STEAM [14]. However,STEAM did not gain as much steam as STEM yet, and it is not as popular either.Qualifications Required for the Position of Instructor for Engineering Courses:A scan of more than one hundred online announcements for engineering faculty positions atvarious institutes of higher education in the US and a few parts of the world was executed. Itrevealed expected similarities as well as differences in listing the qualifications needed tobecome an instructor for engineering courses. Showing full details on this scan here is ratherlong and tedious, and therefore it is not necessary especially many of the details are repetitive.In lieu of that, a relatively shorter tabulated
Conference Session
Technical Sessions 3
Collection
2024 Fall ASEE Mid-Atlantic Section Conference
Authors
Emre Tokgoz, SUNY - Farmingdale State College
Tagged Topics
Professional Papers
) idea is used in mathematics education as a part of theundergraduate curriculum in [19] for the first time during a study on students’ conceptual view ofthe function concept. APO is extended to Action, Process, Object and Schema theory (called APOStheory) in [21] to understand students' function knowledge. APOS theory is explained as thecombined knowledge of a student in a specific subject based on Piaget`s philosophy. APOS theorywas designed in [22] as follows:  An action is a transformation of objects perceived by the individual as essentially external and as requiring, either explicitly or from memory, step-by-step instructions on how to perform the operation...  When an action is repeated and the individual reflects