Conference Session

Engineering Education Research in K-12

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Melissa Dyehouse, Purdue University; Heidi A. Diefes-Dux, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Brenda Capobianco, Purdue University

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods, K-12 & Pre-College Engineering

incorporateengineering into the elementary classroom. Engineering curricula and engineering teacherprofessional development at the elementary level remains a developing area1. It follows thatassessments measuring the impact of such teacher professional development programs, orengineering interventions on students’ engineering design, science, and technology knowledge,have not been widely developed or utilized. For example, the National Academy Engineering(NAE)1 reports that there is a “paucity of data” available to assess the impacts of K-12engineering education on many student outcomes, which “reflects a modest, unsystematic effortto measure, or even define, learning and other outcomes” (p. 154).There is a need for assessments that are developmentally

Conference Session

Computer Science and Information Technology in K-12 Engineering

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Anna Victoria Forssen, Colorado School of Mines; Barbara M. Moskal, Colorado School of Mines; Alka R. Harriger, Purdue University, West Lafayette

Tagged Divisions

K-12 & Pre-College Engineering

were revised to contain themore general term, “computing,” which is used in both the CS and IT fields. The currentversion of the IT attitude survey is a subset of statements from the original 52 statementIT survey.Participants’ responses to the statements in the attitude survey were mapped to anumerical value between one and four, with higher values reflecting more positiveattitudes. In other words, a positively worded statement was scored a four for stronglyagree, a three for agree, a two for disagree, and a one for strongly disagree. A negativelyworded statement was scored a four for strongly disagree, a three for disagree, a two foragree, and a one for strongly agree. A high score for a gender statement reflected agender neutral, rather

Conference Session

Civil Engineering Poster Session

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

John V. Tocco, Lawrence Technological University; Donald D. Carpenter, Lawrence Technological University

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

are placed into one of three categories: foundational, technical and professional.The BOK2 outcomes are also written to reflect preparation as a continuum11,12 , distinguishingbetween Bloom’s level of cognitive achievement13 for baccalaureate level work, to post-baccalaureate, and finally to pre-licensure experience. Therefore, the BOK2 describes whatstudents should achieve by the time they graduate, along with the additional preparation requiredfor them to achieve licensure and practice professionally.Adopting the BOK2 required the review of all civil engineering courses to determine if theircontent was sufficient to meet the new outcomes. Moreover, their respective course objectiveswere painstakingly revised as necessary. The capstone

Conference Session

Assessment Instruments

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Julie Martin Trenor, Clemson University; Matthew K. Miller, Clemson University; Kyle G. Gipson, Clemson University

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

respective protocol, where at the end of the survey (or at logical midpoints during a long survey) the participant will be asked to reflect upon the questions encountered and responses provided to determine if, after looking back, anything else seems confusing or if there is any additional information the participant thinks we should know but the instrument has not sufficiently drawn out of the participant.Verbal Cognitive Validation in the Context of an Engineering Education StudyPurpose of the Research StudyThis paper presents the utility of think-alouds as a VRM in the context of a particularengineering education study. The study is described here in order to lend context to the methodsand results from the think-aloud

Conference Session

Assessing Student Learning

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

David J. Therriault, University of Florida; Christine S. Lee, University of Florida; Elliot P. Douglas, University of Florida; Mirka Koro-Ljungberg, University of Florida; Nathan McNeill, University of Florida

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

werecategorized to determine the amount of time spent on each of five exam behaviors: reading fromthe textbook, writing, calculating, reading the test question, and talking/reflecting. Problemsolutions were separately graded using a previously created rubric. The time spent on variousbehavior categories were then examined with respect to grades students received for theirsolutions. Reading from the textbook represented the bulk of students’ time on the problems(35% on average). Interestingly, there was a significant negative correlation between time spentreading the textbook and students’ grades. The more time that students spent with the text, themore poorly they performed. This correlation was strongest for students who had the lowestsolution scores

Conference Session

Technology in the ECE Classroom

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

David Jakob Fritz, Oklahoma State University; Wira Mulia, Oklahoma State University; Sohum Sohoni, Oklahoma State University; Kerri S. Kearney, Oklahoma State University; Mwarumba Mwavita, Oklahoma State University

Tagged Divisions

Electrical and Computer

. Page 22.1491.1 c American Society for Engineering Education, 2011 The Progressive Learning Platform for Computer EngineeringAbstractThis paper describes the Progressive Learning Platform (PLP), a system designed to facilitatecomputer engineering education while decreasing the overhead costs and learning curveassociated with existing solutions. The PLP system is a System on a Chip design withaccompanying tools reflecting a contemporary CPU architecture. It is unique in that it can beused in a number of courses (Digital Logic Design, Microcomputer Principles, ComputerArchitecture, Compilers, Embedded Systems) as students progress through a ComputerEngineering curriculum. The system consists of a fully

Conference Session

ABET Accreditation, Assessment, and Program Improvement in ECE

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

John K. Estell, Ohio Northern University; Stephen M. Williams, Milwaukee School of Engineering

Tagged Divisions

Electrical and Computer

), advisory board reports, and revision history documented in the university bulletin.” • “It was stated that our Objectives were too focused on current students and not on our alumni. However, our stated objectives were word for word the same as they were in 2003 (they were clearly stated and reflected our objectives at that time so why change them?). I also note that Criterion 2 has not changed since 2003. It was therefore strange that our Objectives have now garnered a weakness when they were just fine in 2003. I believe this underscores a weakness in the Accreditation process in which the published Criteria are too open to interpretation by the specific visiting committee. Programs should be

Conference Session

General Topics in Graduate Education

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Mysore Narayanan, Miami University

Tagged Divisions

Graduate Studies

. Page 22.248.1 c American Society for Engineering Education, 2011 Assessment Based on Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences Mysore Narayanan, Miami University, Ohio.Abstract Scholars in the area of cognitive science and educational psychology agree that‘assessment’ as ‘learning’ should not be treated like a third-party research project orsome administrator’s questionnaire. Assessment must be actually viewed as acommunity effort or nothing. Assessment must be driven by a faculty's owncommitment to reflect, react, innovate and improve. Educators have also recognized thatit is very important that instructors make a strong effort to teach to the

Conference Session

Innovations in Teaching Physics or Engineering Physics II

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Teresa L. Larkin, American University

Tagged Divisions

Engineering Physics & Physics

. While females haveslightly higher mean grades and higher mean GPAs in the course, they have significantly lowerFCI gains than their male constituents. If course grade can be taken to reflect how much astudent has learned, and GPA as a measure of academic success, then it would be reasonable tothink that the female students would have slightly higher FCI gains than their male counterparts.The results presented here reflect the opposite and give rise to a discussion in terms of testingand the potential connection to gender issues. Research on standardized tests (i.e. SAT, GRE, LSAT, etc…) and their relationship togender have been widely reported in the literature [45 – 46]. In 1992, the American Associationof University Women Educational

Conference Session

Recruitment & Retention of Women II

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

John J. Duffy, University of Massachusetts, Lowell; Linda Barrington, University of Massachusetts, Lowell; Manuel A Heredia, University of Massachusetts, Lowell

Tagged Divisions

Women in Engineering

). However, one of the earlier definitions is still widely accepted andcomprehensive: Service-learning is “a course based, credit-bearing, educational experience inwhich students (a) participate in an organized service activity that meets identified communityneeds and (b) reflect on the service activity in such a way as to gain further understanding ofcourse content, a broader appreciation of the discipline, and an enhanced sense of civicresponsibility." (Bringle & Hatcher, 1995). Key elements of service-learning that appear to beimportant to researchers and practitioners include: projects or placements that meet academicobjectives in a credit-bearing course, the meeting of real community needs, analysis or reflectionon the part of students to

Conference Session

NSF Grantees Poster Session

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Marilyn Barger, Hillsborough Community College; Richard Gilbert, University of South Florida; Marie A. Boyette, FLATE

Tagged Topics

NSF Grantees

provides precise feedback that reflects that understanding. Therefore,camp staff should conduct a debriefing with the programmer(s) after every robot challengeactivity. These meetings should start with camper evaluation of the robot’s performance and adetailed analysis of the program’s part in performance success or failures. The staff should avoiddictating programming actions to correct flaws but never leave the camper really uncertain as towhat to do next. In addition, this may be a great opportunity to reinforce the difference betweenhow the camper collects and acts on information vs. how the robot has to be programmed toaccomplish the same tasks. It has been our experience that this is the first time the campersexperience the impact their

Conference Session

International Experience, Effective Instruction, and Student Exchange Programs

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Waddah Akili, Iowa State University

Tagged Divisions

International

practicalproblems and issues that practitioners usually face, into the classroom.(6) Pedagogical studieshave demonstrated that the case study/ case history approach to engineering education provides agreater understanding of the multifaceted nature of civil engineering.(7,8) They can be used to Page 22.312.2simulate a variety of learning protocols such as: design and analysis experiences,interdisciplinary issues and concerns, costs, hazards, owner preferences, and compliance withstandards and guidelines. Cases, by and large, describe situations, projects, problems, decisions,etc., and are primarily derived from actual experience, and do reflect thoughts

Conference Session

Best Zone Paper Competition

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Dan Budny P.E., University of Pittsburgh

Tagged Topics

Council of Sections

benefited all students, faculty, and advisorsinvolved. Through writing assignments that require students to research engineering fieldsand achievements, while reflecting on their own interests and experiences and goals, theE/FEWP creates a substantial picture of students’ own evolving academic and professionalawareness—a picture that is useful to and enhanced by significant freshman advising andmentoring.Freshman Engineering ProgramThe Freshman Program at the University of Pittsburgh has an academic and an advisingcomponent. The mission of both components is to create a first year experience thatpromotes the student’s continued pursuit of an engineering degree. Part of the EngineeringLibrary’s mission has been to work with freshmen in order to give

Conference Session

FPD IX: Research on First-Year Programs and Students, Part II

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Xiang Gong, Beihang University, Beijing, Institute of Higher Education; Monica E. Cardella, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Qing Lei, Beihang University, Beijing

Tagged Divisions

First-Year Programs

) covers the entire four years. This reflects two meanings. On the Page 22.346.7one hand, the importance of FEHPs has been continually manifested and emphasized, as it is notonly the first stage of the entire honors program, but it also takes the responsibility of gettinghonors students well motivated and prepared for future engineering study and work. The majordifference in first-year programs between Uni-US and Uni-CN (actually between mostuniversities in the United States and China) is that in the United States, there is at least aone-year period in which students take “general education” courses. However, there is no similargeneral education in

Conference Session

Core Concepts, Standards, and Policy in K-12 Engineering Education

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Mike Ryan, Georgia Institute of Technology; Brian D. Gane, Georgia Institute of Technology; Marion Usselman, Georgia Institute of Technology

Tagged Divisions

K-12 & Pre-College Engineering

motivation for students to seekcontent knowledge and conceptual understanding that help them solve problems or addresschallenges. Common among effective PBIL curricula and experiences is a focus on student-generated ideas, where students reflect on their actions and investigations to make new decisionsand to improve conceptual understanding 11,12.There is a large amount of research extolling the benefits of curriculum and learning experiencesrooted in PBIL13,14,15,16,17. These studies have found that PBIL affords: more active learning ofcontent; the development of problem-solving skills; increased ownership in learning; greaterunderstanding of the nature of the scientific endeavor; more flexible thinking; improvedcollaboration skills; and

Conference Session

NSF Grantees Poster Session

Collection

2011 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Jianyu Liang, Worcester Polytechnic Institute; Terri A. Camesano, Worcester Polytechnic Institute

Tagged Topics

NSF Grantees

. Overview of Course Our course will be developed to accommodate a number of different learning styles,following the recommendations of Felder and Silverman1. This research suggests that aneffective method for learning should involve both active components (i.e., letting students dosomething in the lab or participate in a discussion), along with a reflective component, whichallows the students to analyze or process their observations. They have found that active learnersdo not learn well in lecture-style or passive settings, and that reflective learners need to be givenan opportunity to think about information and develop their own understandings. Anotherdifference in learning styles relates to the order in which students process information

Collection

1999 Annual Conference

Authors

Sandra Courter; Ruthie Lyle; Ranil Wickramasinghe; Lisa Schaefer; Kevin Nickels; Jodi Reeves; David Noyce; Annie Pearce

developed to help participants experience collaboration in a cross-disciplinary and diverse environment. Finally, networking opportunities were designed to helpall interact naturally with other participants even after the summer program ended.Hands-on workshops were designed to explore learning theories and provide opportunities forparticipants to apply this knowledge to their own teaching. By the end of the program,participants prepared or revised a syllabus and at least one of the following materials: lecture,learning activity, reflective exercise, and assessment tool. In addition, participants discoveredbroader professional development aspects including the following: • learning and teaching styles, • undergraduate retention issues in

Collection

2000 Annual Conference

Authors

Nisreen Ghaddar; Nassir Sabah; Jamal Abed; Fouad T. Mrad

, and employers).The educational objectives are translated into program educational outcomes reflecting theacquired skills of graduates. Continuous assessment is needed to demonstrate that the outcomesare being measured, and to provide evidence that the results of the assessment are being appliedfor further development and improvement of the program. The ultimate goal of the Faculty ofEngineering and Architecture (FEA) at the American University of Beirut (AUB) is toinstitutionalize quality assurance as an ongoing process for continuous improvement in pursuit ofexcellence.The desire and ability to engage in life-long learning has assumed such importance in recentyears so as to be singled out as a separate educational outcome in EC 2000. Life

Conference Session

Innovative Teaching and Assessment Tools

Collection

2010 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Donald McEachron, Drexel University; Fred Allen, Drexel University; Elisabeth Papazoglou, Drexel University; Mustafa Sualp, Untra Corporation; David Delaine, Drexel University; David Hansberry, Drexel University

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

body and maximizelearning outcomes.Figure 3: Relative proportions of Active and Reflective Learners among Current BiomedicalEngineering Students at Drexel (Active learners prefer to learn through engaging in a physicalactivity or discussion while reflective learners are more comfortable using introspectivetechniques11)Initial results from the proof-of concept trials have begun to provide insight into the depth ofinformation available from these suggested practices. Data from the Myers-Briggs showed thatas the students progress through the program, they become more satisfied with how and whatthey are learning. An approximate rating of 1.75 satisfaction for freshmen develops intoapproximately 3.0 for upperclassmen on a scale 1 to 4. The

Conference Session

NSF Grantees Poster Session

Collection

2010 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Lisa Schneider, Cornell University; Maria Terrell, Cornell University Math Dept.

outcome is on: Formulation and solution of mathematical models describing the behavior and performance of physical, chemical, and biological systems and processes; and use of basic scientific and engineering principles to analyze the performance of processes and systems. (Besterfield- Sacre et al., 2000)Central to the framework is the understanding that true learning cannot be measured withoutobservable behavior. Each learning outcome must reflect the integration of the cognitive and thebehavioral – the knowing and the doing.Further, research has shown that what students think about their learning experiences (attitudinaloutcomes) is also a critical component in understanding student performance, especially in thefirst year

Conference Session

Developing Young MINDS in Engineering - Part I

Collection

2010 Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Tanya Ennis, University of Colorado, Boulder; Jana Milford, University of Colorado, Boulder; Beth Myers, University of Colorado, Boulder; Jacquelyn Sullivan, University of Colorado, Boulder; Diane Sieber, University of Colorado, Boulder; Daniel Knight, University of Colorado, Boulder; Ann Scarritt, University of Colorado, Boulder

Tagged Divisions

Minorities in Engineering

College of Engineering andApplied Science enrolls 3,059 undergraduate and 1,162 graduate students. Among engineeringundergraduates, only 8% are underrepresented minorities (URM), 21% are women, and about15% are first-generation college students. Even though 25% of Colorado high school graduateswere underrepresented minorities in 2008, enrollment of such students in our college remainedunchanged for a decade, at 7.6% in 1999 and 7.9% in 2009. Enrollment of femaleundergraduates has also remained flat over this period, at 21%. This enrollment condition isgenerally true nationwide: even as college campuses are becoming more diverse, engineeringcollege demographics have been stubbornly resistant to reflecting the nation’s demographics.Inadequate pre

Conference Session

Addressing the NGSS, Part 2 of 3: Supporting K-12 Science Teachers in Engineering Pedagogy and Engineering-Science Connections, Part 2 of 3

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Margaret Baguio, University of Texas at Austin; Wallace T. Fowler P.E., University of Texas, Austin; Susana Ramirez, PSJA ISD

Tagged Divisions

K-12 & Pre-College Engineering

Falling Star, Comets, Asteroids, Meteorites 2000 Return to the Red Planet 2001 2001: An Edu-Space Odyssey 2002 Have Spacesuit Will Travel 2003 Exploring the Unknown 2004 Mars: Journey to the Red Planet 2005 Spinoffs: Bringing Space Down to Earth 2006 Return to the Moon 2007 Robotics and Space Exploration 2008 Space Travel: It’s Out of This World! 2009 Celestial Travelers 2010 Design a Mission to the Moon 2011 Earth’s Reflections: A View from Above 2012

Conference Session

Assessment

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

James Logan Oplinger, Arizona State University; Micah Lande, Arizona State University, Polytechnic campus

Tagged Divisions

Design in Engineering Education

be graded as low (less than -1 total factor score),moderate (between -1 and 1 total factor score), or high (more than 1 total factor score). The idealmodel level will be a reflection of how a model compares to other proposed ideas and keyconcepts.Coauthors collaborated in order to determine how particular models and model categories rate oneach scale. In addition, qualities emphasized by Atman, Haik, and other researchers1, 3, 5, 17 weretaken into consideration before rating a particular design model. Overall, particular ratings areobjectively based on experience.The evaluated models come from various engineering journals and books. These process modelsare often seen in engineering courses and have applications in a real world environment

Conference Session

Choice and Persistence in Engineering Education and Careers

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Brianna L. Dorie, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Tamecia R. Jones, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Meagan C. Pollock, Purdue University, West Lafayette; Monica E. Cardella, Purdue University, West Lafayette

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

need for increased STEM awareness, partly to increase interestin STEM majors & STEM careers, but also to develop an overall more technologically literatepopulace. Additionally, there is a concern that engineering should better reflect the nationalpopulation. Increasing diversity amongst engineering practitioners is important both from anequity perspective as well as a workforce development perspective (a more diverse populationmeans more diverse perspectives are represented, leading to innovation; also, to attract asufficient workforce we will need to attract women and underrepresented minorities). Researchsuggests that a majority of engineering undergraduates have a parent or another close familymember who is an engineer, and that this is

Conference Session

Projects in ECE

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

David Hoe, The University of Texas at Tyler

Tagged Divisions

Electrical and Computer

reflect upon their experiences throughout thesemester. The course met formally once per week. The main purpose of the meetings was tomake the students accountable for keeping up with their research, to discuss the journal articlesthat they were assigned, to provide opportunities for presenting their results, and interacting withtheir peers and the faculty supervisor. The following excerpt from the course syllabussummarizes the expectations for this research course: Laboratory notebook. The student will keep a notebook recording all his/her findings. This will be reviewed periodically by the faculty mentor to ensure that the essential data is properly recorded and organized so that it can be used to write the final report and poster

Conference Session

Innovative Techniques in Structural Engineering Courses

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

James H. Hanson, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology; John Aidoo, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology; Kyle Kershaw P.E., Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology; Matthew D. Lovell P.E., Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology; Haaken Hagen-Atwell; Matthew James Ross, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology

Tagged Divisions

Civil Engineering

School Psychology Programs developed a task force to address issues with thepracticum.Practicums are common in a Master of Social Work program. Lee and Fortune (2013) conductedresearch on practicums in MSW programs in order to evaluate the importance of “thinking”activities in addition to “doing” activities. They concluded that student reflection is an importantpart of the learning process in a practicum, and that “school faculties can facilitate students’reflection by focusing on application of theories in practice situations” (p. 657).Several business programs require a practicum. At Stanford University, the Graduate School ofBusiness considers the practicum to be “a key element in the revamped program” for PublicManagement (Stanford

Conference Session

Liberal Education/Engineering & Society Division Poster Session

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

William E. Genereux, Kansas State University, Salina

Tagged Divisions

Liberal Education/Engineering & Society

serve as a bridge between theoretical and practicalknowledge. 4 It is practical research that addresses an immediate, local need while providing Page 24.1130.2opportunities for deep reflection leading to individual professional growth. 5Although there are similarities, action research should not be confused with case study research.Typically, case study research involves an independent, outside observer studying a phenomenonin a naturally occurring environment, whereas an action research study includes a researcher whoactively participates in his or her own environment. For educators, this is often a classroom inwhich they teach. Action research

Conference Session

Design in Engineering Education Division Poster Session

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Homero Gregorio Murzi, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

Tagged Divisions

Design in Engineering Education

traditionallecture because students reflect about what they are doing after engaging in several learningactivities introduced in the classroom [1, 14, 16, 23-25]. In contrast, students in traditionallecture pedagogies receive information from the lecturer and their participation andengagement is minimal. As Smith, Sheppard [26] express: “students learn more whenintensely involved in educational process and are encouraged to apply their knowledge inmany situations” (p.87). According to Bonwell and Eison [22], the amount of informationretained by students declines considerably after ten minutes of listening, so traditionalinstructional strategies may not be effective, specially in engineering education. Also, thereflection promoted in active learning has been

Conference Session

Graduate Ethics Education & Professional Codes

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

James Craig Hanks, Texas State University, San Marcos; Dominick Esperanza Fazarro, The University of Texas at Tyler; Jitendra S. Tate, Texas State University, San Marcos; Walt Trybula, Texas State University & Trybula Foundation, Inc.; Robert J.C. McLean, Texas State University

Tagged Divisions

Engineering Ethics

-institutional.Our project starts with the notion that ethical and social responsibility (and here we includesafety, health, and environmental considerations, among others) is an integral part of the practiceof engineers and technologists. Shaping engineering education with this idea in mind is attentiveto the role of identity in what people do,30 and can serve to provide intellectual, conceptual, andnarrative resources to assist professionals as they navigate their work world. Engineering,similar to other professions, has a language,18 and that language frames how practitioners thinkof themselves and their work.27 As Korte notes in a 2013 study, “the developing professionalidentities of new engineers are reflected in the narratives they construct regarding

Conference Session

Trends in Engineering Education 2

Collection

2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition

Authors

Conrad Tucker, Pennsylvania State University, University Park; Kathy Schmidt Jackson, Pennsylvania State University, University Park; Linda C. Schmidt, University of Maryland, College Park; Gül E. Okudan Kremer, Pennsylvania State University, University Park; Peifeng Yin

Tagged Divisions

Educational Research and Methods

studies in learning, thinking, and reaction time2. Below, we summarize some ofthe relevant works on cognition relating to our research based on the extended summary ofcognition, value and decision-making research by Sprehn18.Earlier studies on cognition began in 1940s, where laboratory studies aimed at identifying groupsof people with significant differences in their cognitive processes. Some of the predominanttheories of this epoch are: 1) Perceptual versus Conceptual Groupers3, 2) Sharpeners andLevelers4, 3) Field Dependency/Independency5, and 4) Impulsive versus Reflective Thinkers6,7.We refer the readers to Kozhevnikov8 for an in depth review in this area. One salient criticism ofthese early theories, as voiced by Walker9, Kogan and Saarni10